UC-NRLF 


$B    3D7    T60 


I' 


GIFT  OF 

Dr,   Horace   Ivie 


By 
ltd 


md 


10. 

ith 


the 

iVO 

er- 
aU 


i        ytl- 


Do- 


tioMS  of  tho  Ancient  and  Modern  Nations.     My  TnoMAS  i*kw,  lato 
rroaldont  of  tbo  C^olleijo  of  William  oud  Mary.    8vo.    602  pasjes. 


\ 


STANDARD  EDUCATIONAL  WORKS. 


Gillespie's  Land  Surveying  :  Theoretical  and  Practical.  By  W.  M. 
GrLLBSPiE,  LL.  D.,  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering  in  Union  College. 
With  400  Engravings,  and  a  Map,  showing  the  Variations  of  the 
Needle  in  the  United  States.    8vo.    4'24  pa^jes. 

Levelling,  Topography,  and   Higher  Surveying. 


Edited  by  Cady  Staley,  A.  M.,  C.  E.    8vo.    171  pages. 

Graham's  Englisli  SynonjTnes.  Classified  and  Explained.  With 
Practical  Exercises,  and  Illustrative  Authorities.  Edited  by  Henby 
Eeed,  LL.  D.    12mo.    Si4  pages. 

Guizot's  History  of  Civilization  in  Europe. 
Greene's  History  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Hasweil'S  Book-Keeping  by  Douhle  Entry,  Explained  and  Prac- 
tically Illustrated  in  a  Complete  Eecord  of  Mercantile  and  Financial 
Transactions,  including  Rules  and  numerous  E-xamples  in  Com- 
merckl  Calculations.  Designed  for  Schools,  the  Counticg-House, 
and  Private  Instruction.    In  two  parts.    8vo. 

Euxloy  &  Youmans's  Elements  of  Physiology  ani  Hygiene : 
for  Schools  and  Academies.     With  numerous  Illustrations.    12mo. 

Keightley's  Mythology.    l8mo. 

Koeppen's  Historical  Geography.    2  vols.,  l2mo. 

Krusi's  Drawing.  Inventive  Course,  in  Four  Series.  Now  ready, 
Synlhetic  Series,  Manual,  1  vol,  8vo.,  44  pages.  Drawing-Book, 
4  parts,  IG  patres. 

Latham's  Hand-Book  Of  English  literature.  l9nio.  398  pages. 

Lockyer'S  Elements  of  Astronomy.  Embracing  the  latest  Discov- 
eries, ricbly  illustrated,  and  accompanied  with  Arago's  Celestial 
Charts,  and  Colored  Delineations  of  the  Solar,  Stellar,  and  Nebular 
Spectra.  By  J.  Norman  Lookykr.  American  edition,  specially 
adapted  to  the  Schools  of  the  United  States.    12mo.    812  pages. 

Lyell's  Principles  of  Geology.  2  vols.,  8vo.  New  and  revised  edi- 
tion.   843  pages. 

Marsh's  Book-Keeping  by  Single  Entry.  New  edition.  Print- 
ed in  colors.    8vo.    142  pages. 

Book-Keeping  bT  Double  Entry.    Printed  in  colors. 


8vo.    220  pages.    Blanks  to  each  of  above. 

SEB  END   OF  THIS  VOLtTMB. 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2008  witii  funding  from 

IVIierosoft  Corporation 


http://www.arcl1ive.org/details/advancedcourseofOOqu9cricl1 


ADVANCED    COURSE 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


%  Strits  d  f  raxtkal  i^tssotrs 


THE    ORIGIN,   HISTORY,   AND   PECULIARITIES    OF    THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE,  PUNC- 
TUATION, TASTE,  THE  PLEASURES  OF  THE  IMAGINATION,  FIGURES,  STYLE 
AND  ITS  ESSENTIAL  PROPERTIES,  CRITICISM,  AND  THE  VARIOUS 
DEPARTMENTS  OF  PROSE  AND  POETICAL  COMPOSITION  ; 
ILLUSTRATED  WITH  COPIOUS  EXERCISES. 


ADAPTED  TO  SELF-INaTRUCTION.  AND  THE  USE  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES. 


BY  G.  P.  QUACKENBOS,  LL.D., 

PEINCIPAL  OF    "  THE    COLLEOIATK    SCHOOL,"    N.    Y.  ;     AtTTIIOR  OF    "  FIRST   LESSONS   IN 

COMPOSITION,"    "AN    ENGLISH    GRAMMAR,"    "FIRST    BOOK    IN    GRAMMAR," 

"  ILLUSTRATED  SCHOOL  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,"  ETC. 


'  True  grace  In  writing  comes  from  aet,  not  chance." 

POPK. 


NEW  YORK: 
D.    APPLETON    &    COMPANY, 

549    &   551    BROADWAY. 
CHICAGO :   JANSEN,  McCLURG  &  CO. 

1875, 


GIFT  or 

By  the  same  Author: 

FIRST  WISSONS  IN  COMPOSITION  :  In  which  the  Princlplea  of  the  Art  are 

devely](^efl  in  connection  witii  tlie  Principles  of  Grammar.    12mo,  pp.  183. 

FIRST  BOOK  IN  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  12mo,  pp.  120. 
AN  .filKqU^U  •GRAJkfM'AT?L  1^«VPP-  2«8. 

ELEMENTARY  HISTORY  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES.  Brought  down  to 
July,  1868.    Splendidly  iUustrated.    12mo,  pp.  216. 

ILLUSTRATED  SCHOOL  HISTORY  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES:  with 
numerous  Maps,  Plans  of  Battle-fields,  and  Pictorial  Illustrations.  Brought 
down  to  July,  1868.    12mo,  pp.  538. 

A  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY :  Embracing  the  most  recent  Discoveriea  in  Phys- 
ics. Adapted  to  use  with  or  without  Apparatus,  and  accompanied  with  Prac- 
tical Exercises  and  333  Illustrations.    12mo,  pp.  450. 

A  PRIMARY  ARITHMETIC.    BeautiftxUy  Ulustrated.    16mo,  pp.  108. 

AN  ELEMENTARY  ARITHMETIC.    12mo,  pp.  144. 

A  PRACTICAL  ARITHMETIC.    12mo,  pp.  836.    KEY  to  the  same. 

A  MENTAL  ARITHMETIC.    16mo,  pp.  168. 

A  HIGHER  OR  COMMERCIAL  ARITHMETIC. 

eOUCATION  DEFT 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  In  the  year  1854,  by 

G.  P.  QUACKENB08, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  for  the  Southern 

District  of  New  York. 


THE    EEY.    DE.    FERRIS, 

CHANCELLOR  OF  TETE  UlSnCVEESITT  OP  THE  CITY  OF  NEW  TOKK, 

AS 

A   TRIBUTE   OP   PROFESSIONAL   RESPECT 

»0B  SOUKB  SCHOLABSHTP  AND  UNWEARIED  LABORS  IN  THE  CAUSE  OF  EDUCATION, 

NO  LESS  THAN  AS  A  MEMORIAL 

OP 

PRIVATE     ESTEEM     AND     FRIENDSHIP, 
THIS    VOLUME 

fi»  aacs|)ectfull2  JieliicateJj 

BY 

THE  AUTHOE. 


924221 


PEEFACE 


The  favor  with  which  the  public  have  kindly  received  the  au- 
thor's "First  Lessons  in  Composition  ",  and  the  frequent  calls  made 
by  Colleges  and  higher  Academies  for  a  more  advanced  work  on 
tlie  same  plan,  with  which  to  follow  it,  have  led  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  present  volume.  The  elementary  book  to  which  refer- 
ence has  just  been  made,  was  intended  to  initiate  the  beginner  by 
easy  steps  into  the  art  of  composition ;  the  work  now  offered  to 
the  public  has  a  wider  scope,  embracing  a  variety  of  subjects  worthy 
of  the  attention  of  advanced  pupils,  and  presenting  much  important 
matter  heretofore  scattered  through  a  number  of  different  text- 
books. Claiming  to  give  a  comprehensive  and  practical  view  of  our 
language  in  all  its  relations,  this  "Advanced  Course  "  views  it  as  a 
whole,  no  less  than  with  reference  to  the  individual  words  compos- 
ing it ;  shows  how  it  compares  with  other  tongues,  modern  and 
ancient ;  points  out  its  beauties ;  indicates  how  they  may  best  be 
made  available ;  and,  in  a  word,  teaches  the  pupil  the  most  phil- 
osophical method  of  digesting  and  arranging  his  thoughts,  as  well 
as  the  most  correct  and  effective  mode  of  expressing  them. 

The  volume  commences  with  a  condensed  history  of  our  tongue, 
prefaced  by  a  consideration  of  the  origin  of  language  in  general, 
both  spoken  and  written.  Attention  is  first  paid  to  the  successive 
steps,  by  which,  with  divine  aid,  man  was  enabled  to  develop  a 
system  of  spoken  language,  to  frame  that  elaborate  and  wonderful 
fabric  without  which  civilization  would  be  blotted  from  the  globe. 
The  invention  of  letters  and  the  various  systems  of  writing  form 
the  next  subjects  in  order.  The  primitive  language  of  Britain  is 
then  traced  through  successive  modifications,  produced  by  as 
marly  political  changes,  until  at  last  the  German  invaders  banished 
it  to  wilds  and  fastnesses,  and  introduced  the  sturdy  mother-tongue 
of  our  own  English.    The  history  of  the  latter  is  then  traced,  from 


6  PEEFACE. 

• 

tlie  days  of  Hengist  and  lEorsa,  through  lines  of  Saxon  kings,  Scan- 
dinavian usurpers,  and  Norman  conquerors ;  until,  modified,  en- 
riched, and  improved,  by  the  foreign  elements  with  which  it  was 
brought  in  contact,  it  became  a  new  tongue,  that  was  soon  em- 
bodied by  poets  in  undying  verse,  and  was  destined  to  give  birth 
to  the  noblest  and  most  valuable  literature  of  modem  times. 

The  formation  of  the  English  language  having  been  thus  con- 
sidered, its  words  are  treated  of,  with  reference  both  to  their  origin 
and  the  parts  they  respectively  perform  in  a  sentence.  The  memory 
of  the  pupil  being  then  refreshed  by  a  condensed  review  of  the 
leading  topics  of  grammar,  a  chapter  on  false  syntax,  and  an  ex- 
haustive view  of  the  principles  relating  to  the  use  of  Capitals,  tho 
too  generally  neglected  subject  of  Punctuation  is  next  taken  up. 
As  this  art,  when  considered  at  all  in  educational  text-books,  is 
treated  only  in  the  most  cursory  manner,  it  was  regarded  as  a 
desideratum  to  present  in  this  volume  a  complete  and  thorough 
system,  which  should  cover  exceptions  as  well  as  rules,  and  pro- 
vide for  every  possible  case,  however  rare  or  intricate.  Such  a 
system,  it  is  claimed,  is  here  set  forth. 

Rhetoric  proper  constitutes  the  next  division  of  the  work.  Here, 
by  means  of  strict  conciseness,  space  has  been  found  to  treat  with 
due  attention  and  minuteness  every  important  subject  connected 
with  tho  art.  The  student  is  led  to  consider  successively  Taste, 
its  elements,  characteristics,  and  standard ;  the  pleasures  of  the 
imagination ;  their  sources, — the  novel,  the  wonderful,  the  pictu- 
resque, the  sublime,  and  the  beautiful ;  sublimity  and  beauty  of 
writing;  wit,  humor,  and  ridicule;  figures,  their  use  and  abuse; 
stylo,  its  varieties  and  essential  properties;  and  criticism.  A 
thorough  preliminary  course  on  these  important  subjects  was 
thought  necessary  before  requiring  the  student  to  write  original 
exercises. 

Thus  prepared,  the  pupil  enters  on  the  subject  of  Prose  Compo- 
sition. Tho  process  of  Invention,  which  fiimishes  the  thoughts  to 
bo  clothed  in  a  dress  of  words,  and  which  constitutes  the  most  dif- 
ficult if  not  tho  chief  branch  of  tho  art,  is  first  considered.  Tlio 
young  composer  is  shown  how  to  analyze  his  subject,  and  to  am- 
plify the  thoughts  successively  suggested  into  a  well-connected 
whole.  Tho  difl'erent  parts  of  an  exercise  aro  taken  uj)  in  turn ; 
various  forms  and  models  of  introductions  aro  presented ;  descrip- 
tion, narration,  argument,  &o.,  aro  treated,  and  the  peculiarities  of 


PREFACE.  7 

each  pointed  out,  as  well  as  the  styles  which  they  respectively  re- 
quire. The  varieties  of  prose  composition  follow ;  and,  with  care- 
fully selected  models  before  him,  the  student  is  required  to  prepare 
original  compositions  on  the  same  plan,— such  previous  instruction 
having  been  given,  and  such  aids  being  presented,  that  the  process 
of  composing,  no  longer  a  dull,  routine,  performance,  becomes  a 
highly  intelligent  and  improving  mental  discipline.  Thus  made 
acquainted  successively  with  Letters,  Narratives,  Fiction,  Essays, 
Argumentative  Discourses,  and  Orations,  and  furnished  with  sub- 
jects in  each  department  and  suggestions  as  to  their  proper  treat- 
ment, the  student  is  next  led  to  the  consideration  of  Poetry,  its 
feet,  measures,  rhymes,  pauses,  and  different  varieties. 

The  subject  last  referred  to  is  not  treated  with  the  view  of  mak- 
ing poets.  A  claim  to  this  high  title  must  be  founded  on  something 
more  than  a  mere  ability  to  versify  or  rhyme  correctly.  But,  while 
it  is  admitted  that  no  rules  can  make  a  poet  of  one  whom  nature 
has  not  constituted  such,  it  is  sincerely  believed  that  a  knowledge 
of  the  principles  here  set  forth  will  have  a  tendency  to  produce 
more  correct  and  better  poetry,  as  it  certainly  will  enable  the 
reader  to  have  a  higher  appreciation  of  its  merits.  Not  every  one 
who  goes  through  a  course  of  syntax  can  write  good  prose ;  yet 
this  does  not  alter  the  fact  that  a  thorough  acquaintance  with 
syntax  is  essential  to  the  good  prose-writer. 

If  it  be  asked  what  constitute  the  distinguishing  features  and 
advantages  of  the  volume  here  presented  to  the  public,  the  author 
would  reply:  In  the  first  place,  clearness  and  simplicity.  Though 
the  work  was  prepared  for  pupils  of  an  advanced  grade,  and  has 
been  written  in  a  style  adapted  to  their  comprehension,  yet  it  was 
deemed  of  primary  importance  to  set  forth  every  point  perspic- 
uously and  intelligibly.  Secondly,  it  embraces  in  small  compass  a 
variety  of  important  subjects,  which  have  a  common  connection, 
and  mutually  illustrate  each  other;  but  which  the  pupil  has  here- 
tofore been  obliged  to  leave  unlearned,  or  to  search  for  among  a 
number  of  different  volumes.  In  the  third  place,  it  is  eminently 
practical.  Exercises  have  been  introduced  throughout  the  work, 
wherever  admissible,  which  will  insure  that  what  has  been  learned 
is  properly  understood,  and  impressed  on  the  mind. 

It  remains  for  the  author  to  acknowledge  his  obligation  to  the 
various  sources  from  which  he  has  received  assistance  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  present  work.    His  object  throughout  having  been  to 


8  PREFACE. 

produce  a  useful  book,  he  did  not  feel  at  liberty  to  reject  aught  that 
could  be  turned  to  practical  use.  lie  has,  therefore,  as  far  as  was 
consistent  with  his  own  plan,  carefully  gleaned  whatever  he  has 
found  of  value  in  the  works  of  those  who  have  preceded  hiin.  Par- 
ticular reference  is  here  made  to  the  text-books  which  for  years 
have  been  regarded  as  standards  on  the  subjects  of  wliich  they  re- 
spectively treat ;  to  Blair's  Lectures,  Burke  on  the  Sublime  and 
Beautiful,  Alison's  Essay  on  Taste,  and  other  books  of  a  similar 
stamp,  from  which  ideas,  and  occasionally  language,  have  been 
freely  drawn.  Nor  have  more  modern  English  publications  been 
overlooked.  In  a  word,  it  is  believed  that,  while  originality  of 
plan  and  execution  have  been  strictly  maintained,  whatever  may 
have  been  elsewhere  contributed  to  the  elucidation  of  the  subject, 
will  not  be  wanting  here ;  at  the  same  time  it  has  been  the  au- 
thor's aim,  in  drawing  from  others,  to  improve  upon  their  lan- 
guage, to  adapt  their  style  to  the  comprehension  of  all,  and  to 
avoid  the  errors  of  fact,  grammar,  or  rhetoric,  into  which  they 
may  have  fallen. 

The  author  is  aware  that  an  objection  to  the  use  of  a  text-book 
on  Composition  exists  in  the  minds  of  some,  who  prefer  that  their 
pupils  should  prepare  written  exercises  from  given  subjects  without 
aid  or  instruction  of  any  kind.  Of  such  he  would  respectfully  ask 
a  careful  consideration  of  the  question  whether  something  may  not 
be  gained  by  pursuing  a  regular,  consistent,  plan.  As,  in  the  vari- 
ous departments  of  industry,  much  more  can  be  accomplished,  in  a 
limited  time  and  with  a  given  amount  of  labor,  by  those  who  work 
according  to  a  definite  enlightened  system,  than  by  men  of  equal 
energy,  who,  with  an  end  alone  in  view,  without  regard  to  a  choice 
of  means,  go  blindly  to  their  task,  directed  by  no  liigher  principle 
than  chance ;  so,  it  is  claimed,  an  equal  advantage  is  gained  by 
those  students  of  composition  who  pursue  a  well-digested  plan, 
matured  by  experience,  and  elaborated  by  careful  thought.  Those 
who  have  tried  both  courses  must  decide  whether  tliis  position  is 
not  as  consonant  with  fact,  as  it  certainly  is  with  reason. 

Repeating  his  thanks  for  the  i)atronage  extended  to  the  little 
volume  wliich  preceded  this,  the  author  can  only  express  tlie  hope 
that  the  work  now  sent  forth  may  meet  with  an  equally  kind 
reception. 

New  York,  Sept.  11, 1864. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

HISTORY    OP    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 
LBSSOX  rA«it 

I.  Media  of  Communication, 13 

II.  Origin  of  Spoken  Language, 17 

III.  Written  Language,    ........*..  20 

IV.  Alphabetic  Writing, n 

V.  Formation  of  Language, 29 

VI.  Origin  of  tlie  Englisli  Language, *       .34 

VII.  Origin  of  the  English  Language  («m<«ftwe<?), 41 

VIII.  Origin  of  the  English  Language  (continued), 47 

IX.  Analysis  of  the  English  Language, 52 

X.  Characteristics  of  the  English  Language, 57 

XL  Parts  of  Speech, ....  - 61 

XII.  Sentences, G7 

XUL  Capital  Letters, ,       .  74 

XIV.  Exercise  on  Capitals, 79 


PART  II. 

PUNCTUATION. 

XV.  Principles  of  the  Art, fil 

XVI.  The  Period, 80 

XVIL  The  Interrogation-point.— The  ExclamatiOn-point,       ....  91 

XVIIL  The  Colon ^ 

XIX.  The  Semicolon, ^00 


XX.  The  Comma, 


104 


XXI.  The  Comma  (continued),     .       .       .       .       •       •       •       •       •       *    ^^ 
1* 


10  CONTENTS. 

LESSON  rAOB 

XXII.  The  Comma  (eontinued), 113 

XXIIL  The  Comma  {continued), 118 

XXIV.  The  Comma  {continued), 123 

XXV.  The  Comma  (cmtinued), 128 

XXVI.  The  Dash, 131 

XXVII.  Parentheses.— Brackets, 136 

XXVIIL  Apostrophe.— Hyphen.— Quotation-points, 141 

XXIX.  Exercise  on  the  Apostrophe,  the  Hyphen,  and  Qnotation-points,  147 

XXX.  Other  Marks  used  in  Writing  and  Printing, 149 

XXXI.  Grammatical  Inaccuracies, 155 

Exercise  in  False  Syntax, 160 


PART   III. 

RHETORIC. 

XXXIIL  Province  and  Objects  of  Rhetoric, 163 

XXXIV.  Taste.— Its  Universality  and  Cultivation, 169 

XXXV.  Elements  and  Characteristics  of  Taste, 173 

XXXVI.  Standard  of  Taste, 178 

XXXVIL  Pleasures  of  the  Imagination, 183 

XXXVIII.  Sources  of  the  Pleasures  of  the  Imagination.— The  Novel.- The 

Wonderful.— The  Picturesque, 188 

XXXIX.  The  Sublime, 194 

XL.  The  Sublime  in  Writing, 201 

XLI.  The  Sublime  in  Writing  {continued), 206 

XLII.  The  Sublime  in  Writing  {conUnued), 211 

XLIII.  The  Beautiful, 214 

XLIV.  Gracefulness.— The  Beautiful  in  the  Human  Countenance,  in 

Sound,  and  in  Writing, 221 

XLV.  Wit, 225 

XLVI.  Humor  and  Ridicule, 231 

XLVn.  Figures  of  Orthography,  Etymology,  and  Syntax,  ....  235 

XLVIII.  Figurative  Language, 239 

XLIX.  Exercises  on  Figurative  Language, 245 

L.  Figures  of  Rhetoric, 246 

LL  Exercise  on  Figures, 253 

LIL  Rules  for  the  Use  of  Rhetorical  Figures 254 

Lin.  Exercise  on  Figures, 260 

LIV.  Style  and  Its  Varieties 263 

LV.  Exercise  on  the  Varieties  of  Style, 267 


COlfTlp^TS.  11 

liZSSOM  PACK 

LVI.  Essential  Properties  of  Style.— Purity.— Propriety,   .      .      .270 

LVII.  Exercise  on  Purity,  and  Propriety, 277 

LVin.  Precision, 279 

LIX.  Clearness,  or  Perspicuity, .       284 

LX.  Exercise  on  Clearness,    ....       ....,,    291 

LXI.  Strength, 293 

LXII.  Harmony,  »».,.... .299 

LXIII.  Exercise  pn  Harmpny, 308 

liXIV.  Unity, ..      ,       *      ^ 309 

LXV.  The  Forming  of  Style,  ,      ........       .       313 

LXVI.  Criticism,  .      .      ,      . 318 


PART  IV. 

PROSE    COMPOSITION. 

LXVII.  Invention.— Analysis  of  Subjects, 325 

LXVni.  Amplification 329 

LXIX.  Revision  and  Correction  of  Compositions, 334 

LXX.  Exercise  in  Amplification, 337 

LXXI.  Exercise  in  Amplification, 337 

LXXII.  Exercise  on  Plain  and  Figurative  Language,  ....  337 

LXXin.  Exercise  in  Extended  Simile, 338 

LXXIV.  Exercise  in  Extended  SimUe, 338 

LXXV.  Exercise  in  Metaphorical  Language, 838 

LXXVI.  Exercise  in  Allegory,  . ^^ 

LXXVII.  Exercise  in  Hyperbole, ^^^ 

LXXVIII.  Exercises  in  Vision  and  Apostrophe, 341 

LXXIX.  Exercise  in  Personification, ^^ 

LXXX.  Exercises  in  Climax  and  Antithesis, 342 

LXXXI.  Parallels, ^^ 

040 
LXXXII.  Exercise  in  Parallels 

LXXXIII.  Exercise  in  Parallels, 

LXXXrV.  Exercise  in  Defining  Synonymes, 244 

LXXXV.  Exercise  in  Defining  Synonymes, ^^ 

LXXXVI.  Exercise  in  Paraphrasing, ^^ 

LXXXVII.  Exercise  in  Paraphrasing, •       '  ^^^ 

LXXXVni.  Exercise  in  Abridging, ^^ 

347 

LXXXIX.  Exercise  in  Abridging, 

347 

XC.  Exercise  in  Abridging, 

347 
XCI.  Exercise  in  Criticism, 


12  CX^NTENTS. 

LESSON  PlBf 

XCII.  Exercise  in  Criticism, 317 

XCIII.  Description  of  Material  Objects, 318 

XCIV.  Description  of  Natural  Scenery,  and  Persons,  .       .       .       .       .  350 

XCV.  Narratlon.—Argument.— Exposition.— Speculation,     ...  353 

XCVI.  Letters, 355 

XCVII.  Letters  (continued), 365 

XCVIII.  Narratives, 367 

XCIX.  Exercise  in  Blograpliy, ,       .  872 

C.  Fiction, 371 

CI.  Essays, 370 

CII.  Exercises  in  Essay-Writing', 385 

ClIL  Theses,  or  Argumentative  Discourses, 385 

CIV.  Orations.— Sermon-Writing, 393 


PART  V. 

POETICAL     COMPOSITION. 

CV.  Verse.— Quantity.— Feet.— Metres, 400 

CVI.  Stanzas.— Sonnets.— Heroic  Verse.— Blank  Verse,       ..."  406 

CVn.  Rhymes.— Pauses, 413 

CVin.  Varieties  of  Poetry, 418 

Specimen  Proof-Shcct, 434 

Explanation  of  Maries  used  on  the  Specimen  Proof-Sheet,  .       .  42fl 

List  of  Subjects, 421 

Table  of  Abbreviations, 430 

Index, 44g 


ADVANCED  COURSE 

OF  ;r.nv.  Oi' 

COMPOSITION  AND  EffBTMW!. 


PART  I. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


LESSON   I. 

MEDIA   OF   COMMUNICATION. 


§  1.  Man  is  distinguished  from  the  brute  creation  by  the 
possession  of  reason.  Brutes  are  governed  by  instinct ;  man, 
by  his  reasoning  faculties.  The  senses  of  both  are  the  same, 
and  on  these  senses  material  objects  produce  similar  impres- 
sions. But  from  these  impressions  brutes  can  not  reason  any 
further  than  their  natural  instincts  enable  them,  and  their  ne- 
cessities require.  Man,  on  the  other  hand,  being  possessed 
of  intellectual  faculties,  is  capable  of  drawing  inferences ; 
and  thus  from  the  impressions  made  on  his  senses  by  a  sin- 
gle external  object,  receives  many  different  ideas,  which, 
producing  others  in  their  turn,  may  be  multiplied  to  infinity. 

§  2.  Men,  being  endowed  with  social  dispositions,  natu- 
rally desire  to  interchange  the  ideas  received  in  the  manner 

§  1.  How  is  man  distinguished  from  tlie  brute  creation  ?  By  wliat  are  brutes 
governed  ?  By  what,  man  ?  How  do  the  senses  of  men  and  brutes,  and  the  im- 
pressions produced  upon  them,  diflFer  ?  How,  then,  do  men  receive  more  ideas 
from  these  impressions  than  brutes  ? 


14  MEDIA  OF  COMMUNICATION. 

above  described.  Brutes,  also,  particularly  those  of  grega- 
rious habits,  are  at  times  actuated  by  a  similar  impulse  to 
make  known  their  feehngs  to  each  other.  Now  in  both 
these  cases  some  mediimi  of  communication  is  necessary; 
and  we  find  that  the  ingenuity  of  man  has  devised  four 
meaiJS.  isipre  or  leS^  adapted  to  the  purpose,  the  first  two  of 
which  the  instinct  of  the  lower  orders  of  creation  has  led 
tben^ 41^  to 'ei^p^oy.    These^are  as  follows: — 

t  '^ Gestures,  By  these  are  meant  the  movements  of  the 
body  or  its  members.  In  the  case  of  brutes,  they  are  often 
so  expressive  as  to  leave  no  doubt  as  to  the  predominant  emo- 
tion. Thus,  in  the  billing  of  doves  we  see  love  exemplified ; 
in  the  lion  lashing  his  sides  with  his  tail,  and  the  cat  raising 
her  back  at  the  sight  of  an  enemy,  we  have  unmistakable 
evidences  of  anger ;  and  in  the  horse  depressing  his  ears 
backwards,  of  fear.  Man,  having  generally  other  and  better 
means  of  communication,  seldom  uses  gestures  alone,  though 
he  often  employs  them  to  illustrate  and  enforce  w^hat  he  says. 
When  other  means,  however,  are  wanting,  he  is  able  with 
their  aid  alone  to  express  liis  sentiments ;  as  in  the  case  of 
the  sick  who  have  lost  the  power  of  speech,  or  of  one  at- 
tempting to  make  himself  understood  by  those  with  whose 
language  he  is  unacquainted.  It  is  surprising,  indeed,  to 
sec  how  perfectly  persons  practised  in  the  use  of  gestures 
can  commimicate  even  complicated  trains  of  thought  and 
long  series  of  facts.  Good  pantomimists  will  make  the  plot 
of  a  theatrical  piece  just  as  intelligible  to  an  audience  as  if 
it  were  developed  by  dialogue. 

This  fact  was  kno^wn  and  appreciated  by  the  ancient 

§  2.  What  desire  results  from  man's  social  disposition  ?  Is  this  desire  con- 
fined to  the  human  race  ?  How  many  means  of  communication  has  man  devised  ? 
IIow  many  and  which  are  employed  by  brutes  also  ? 

What  is  the  first  medium  of  communication  ?    What  is  meant  by  gestures  ? 
Give  instances  of  the  use  of  gestures  by  brutes,  and  mention  the  emotions  they 
indicate.    For  what  purpose  does  man  generally  use  gestures  f    Do  they  ever 
servo  alone  to  express  his  sentiments  ?    Give  instances.    "VSTiat  may  V"  ' 
nicatcd  by  gestures  ?   Give  an  instance.   What  is  said  of  the  action  ol  ; 
and  Romans?    IIow  fur  was  it  carried  on  the  sta^'c?    What  point  av 


MEDIA  OF   COMMUNICATION.  15 

Greeks  and  Romans,  whose  action  was  much  more  vehement 
than  we  are  accustomed  to  see  at  the  present  day.  On  the 
stage  this  was  carried  so  far  that  two  actors  were  at  times 
brought  on  to  play  the  same  part ;  the  office  of  one  being  to 
pronounce  the  words,  and  that  of  the  other  to  accompany 
them  with  appropriate  gestures,  a  single  performer  being  un- 
able to  attend  to  both.  Cicero  informs  us  that  it  was  a  mat- 
ter of  dispute  between  the  actor  Roscius  and  himself  whether 
the  former  could  express  a  sentiment  in  a  greater  variety  of 
ways  by  significant  gestures,  or  the  latter  by  the  use  of  dif- 
ferent phrases.  He  also  elsewhere  tells  us  that  this  same 
Roscius  had  gained  great  love  from  every  one  by  the  mere 
movements  of  his  person.*  During  the  reign  of  Augustus, 
both  tragedies  and  comedies  were  acted  by  pantomime  alone. 
It  was  perfectly  understood  by  the  people,  who  wept,  and 
laughed,  and  were  excited  in  every  way  as  much  as  if  words 
had  been  employed.  It  seems,  indeed,  to  have  worked  upon 
their  sympathies  more  powerfully  than  words ;  for  it  became 
necessary,  at  a  subsequent  period,  to  enact  a  law  restraining 
members  of  the  senate  from  studying  the  art  of  pantomime, 
a  practice  to  wliich  it  seems  they  had  resorted  in  order  to 
give  more  effect  to  their  speeches  before  that  body. 

When,  however^  the  Roman  Empire  yielded  to  the  arms 
of  the  Northern  barbarians,  and,  as  a  consequence,  great 
numbers  of  the  latter  spread  over  it  in  every  direction,  their 
cold  and  phlegmatic  manners  wrought  a  material  change  as 
regards  the  gestures,  no  less  than  the  tones  and  accents,  of  the 
people. .   The  mode  of  expression  gradually  grew  more  sub- 


*  Ergo  ille  corporis  motu  tantum  amorem  sibi  concilidrat  a  nobis 
omnibus.  —  Pro  Archia  Poeta,  VIII. 

by  Cicero  and  Koscius  ?  What  does  Cicero  tell  us  with  respect  to  this  actor  ?  la 
the  reign  of  Augustus,  how  were  hoth  tragedies  and  comedies  represented  ?  How 
did  some  of  the  senators  seek  to  give  effect  to  their  speeches  ?  What  law  was 
passed  on  the  subject?  What  effect  did  the  conquest  of  the  Eoman  Empire  by 
Northern  barbarians  have  on  the  gestures  and  tones  of  the  people  ?  How  do  the 
tones  of  the  people  of  Southern  Europe  now  compare  with  those  of  the  North? 
Of  what  nations,  in  particular,  is  this  true  ? 


16  MEDIA  O^  COMMUNICATION. 

dued,  and  the  accompanying  action  less  violent,  in  proportion 
as  the  new  influences  prevailed.  Conversation  became  more 
languid;  and  public  speaking  was  no  longer  indebted  for  its 
effect  to  the  art  of  the  pantomimist.  So  great  was  the  change 
in  these  respects  that  the  allusions  of  classical  authors  to  the 
oratory  of  their  day  were  hardly  intelligible.  Notwithstand- 
ing these  modifications,  however,  the  people  of  Southern 
Europe,  being  warmer  and  more  passionate  by  nature,  are, 
at  the  present  day,  much  more  animated  in  their  tones  and 
more  addicted  to  gesticulation  than  the  inhabitants  of  the 
North.    Tliis  is  particularly  true  of  the  French  and  Italians. 

II.  Inarticulate  Sounds^  or  cries  used  by  man,  particu- 
larly during  infancy,  and  by  all  other  animals,  to  express 
strong  and  sudden  emotions,  such  as  fear,  love,  sorrow,  and 
the  like.  In  the  earlier  periods  of  man's  history,  before  a 
perfect  system  of  language  was  developed,  it  is  probable 
that  these  natural  interjections  were  used  more  frequently 
than  at  present.  Grammarians  consider  them  the  earliest 
elements  of  speech.  Among  these  inarticulate  sounds  may 
be  classed  sighing,  groaning,  laughing,  and  screaming,  each 
of  which  is  a  key  to  the  prevailing  sentiment  of  the  mind. 

III.  Spoken  Language^  or  an  assemblage  of  articulate 
sounds,  which  are  individually  the  type  of  certain  ideas,  and 
by  a  combination  of  which  thoughts  may  be  expressed. 
This  means  of  communication,  as  well  as  that  which  follows, 
is  employed  by  man  alone. 

IV.  Written  Language.  By  this  is  meant  a  combina- 
tion of  arbitrary  characters,  which  convey  to  the  mind  the 
ideas  they  represent  through  the  medium  of  the  eye. 

It  will  be  seen  that,  as  the  ideas  generated  by  man's  re- 


What  is  the  second  medium  of  commanication  ?  Wliat  is  meant  by  Inarticulaf o 
Sounds  ?  When  were  they  most  frequently  used  ?  How  do  frrammarians  regard 
them  ?    What  may  be  classed  among  these  Innrticulnte  Sounds  ? 

What  is  the  third  medium  of  communication  ?  What  is  Spoken  Language  ? 
By  whom  is  it  employed  ? 

What  is  the  fourth  medium  of  commanication  f  Whftt  is  meant  by  Written 
Language  ?  • 


ORIGIN   OF   SPOKEN   LANGUAGE.  17 

flective  faculties  infinitely  outnumber  the  emotions  of  brutes, 
so  his  means  of  communication  are  at  once  more  numerous 
and  precise. 

Gestures  and  inarticulate  sounds  our  subject  does  not 
lead  us  to  consider  any  further ;  of  language,  spoken  and 
written,  we  shall  now  proceed  to  treat. 


LESSON    II. 

ORIGIN   OF   SPOKEN  LANGUAGE. 

§  3.  It  is  a  question  that  has  been  much  and  ably  dis- 
cussed, whether  spoken  language  is  a  divine  or  human  insti- 
tution :  whether  God  gave  it  to  man,  as  He  gave  the  mental 
faculties ;  or  man  invented  it  for  himself,  stimulated  by  the 
desire  of  communicating  with  his  land. 

Those  who  think  language  is  a  human  institution  believe, 
witH  the  ancient  philosophers  and  poets,  that  men  were  orig- 
inally "a  dumb  and  low  herd";*  that  they  were  in  all 
things  rude  and  savage,  totally  ignorant  of  the  arts,  unable 
to  communicate  with  each  other  except  in  the  imperfect 
manner  of  beasts,  and  sensible  of  nothing  save  hunger,  pain, 
and  similar  emotions.  Cicero,  alluding  to  the  human  race 
in  primeval  ages,  says :  "  There  was  a  time  when  men  wan- 
dered everywhere  through  the  fields  after  the  manner  of 
beasts,  and  supported  life  by  eating  the  food  of  beasts." 
Diodorus,  Lucretius,  Horace,  Pliny,  Juvenal,  and  other  an- 
cient writers,  agree  with  Cicero  in  this  opinion,  and  hold 


*  "  Mutum  et  turpe  pecus." 


How  do  man's  ideas  and  means  of  communication  compare  with  those  of 
brutes  ?  ' 

§  3.  What  question  has  been  much  discussed  ?  What  did  the  ancient  philoso- 
phers and  poets  regard  as  the  original  state  of  men?  What  does  Cicero  say  of 
Wie  human  race  in  primeval  times  ?   What  ancient  writers  agree  with  him  in  this 


18  OBIGIN   OF   SPOKEN   LANGUAGE. 

that  it  was  only  after  a  long  and  gradual  improvement  that 
men  came  to  their  present  enlightened  state. 

Lord  Monboddo,  who,  in  his  work  on  "  The  Origin  and 
Progress  of  Language  ",  labors  to  prove  that  man  is  but  a 
higher  species  of  monkey,  thinks  that  originally  the  human 
race  had  only  a  few  monosyllables,  such  as  ha,  he,  hi,  ho, 
by  which,  like  beasts,  they  expressed  certain  emotions. 

Dr.  Murray  gives  it  as  his  opinion  that  all  language  orig- 
inated in  nine  monosyllables,  AG,  bag,  dwag,  gwag,  lag, 
MAG,  NAG,  EAG,  SWAG.  "  Each  of  thcsc,"  says  Dr.  M.,  "  is  a 
verb,  and  indicates  a  species  of  action.  Power,  motion, 
force,  ideas  united  in  every  untutored  mind,  are  implied  m 
them  all.  They  were  uttered  at  first,  and  probably  for  sev- 
eral generations,  in  an  insulated  maimer.  The  circumstances 
of  the  action  were  communicated  by  gestures  and  the  varia- 
ble tones  of  the  voice;  but  the  actions  themselves  were  ex- 
pressed by  their  suitable  monosyllables." 

Rousseau  represents  men  as  originally  without  language, 
as  unsocial  by  nature,  and  totally  ignorant  of  the  ties  of 
society.  He  does  not,  however,  seek  to  explain  how  lan- 
guage arose,  being  disheartened  at  the  outset  by  the  diffi- 
culty of  deciding  whether  language  was  more  necessary  for 
the  institution  of  society,  or  society  for  the  invention  of 
language.  Maupertuis,  however,  overcomes  this  difficulty 
by  holding  that  "language  was  formed  by  a  session  of 
learned  societies  assembled  for  that  purpose  ". 

§  4.  But  we  must  leave  these  absurd  theories.  Language 
is,  beyond  doubt,  a  divine  institution,  invented  by  the  Deity 
and  by  Him  made  known  to  the  human  race.  If  language 
was  devised  by  man,  the  invention  could  not  have  been  at 

opinion  ?  What  is  tlic  title  of  Lord  Monboddo's  work?  What  does  the  author 
try  to  prove  in  it  ?  How  docs  he  think  that  the  human  race  originally  expressed 
their  emotions?  lu  what  does  Dr.  Murray  think  that  all  langua|?e  originated? 
What  part  of  speech,  according  to  him,  was  each  of  these  monosyllables  ?  What 
ideas  doea  he  think  were  implied  in  them  ?  How  does  Rousseau  represent  the 
original  race  of  men  ?  What  dllflculty  disheartened  him  at  the  outaet  of  bia  in- 
quiries ?    What  doea  Maupertuia  hold  ? 


OEIGIN   OF   SPOKEN   LAI^^GUAGE.  19 

once  matured,  but  must  have  been  the  result  of  the  necessi- 
ties and  experience  of  successive  generations.  This,  how- 
ever, does  not  accord  with  the  facts  of  history ;  for,  however 
far  we  go  back,  we  can  not  arrive  at  any  period  when  even 
the  most  unenlightened  portions  of  mankind  did  not  possess 
a  system  of  language.  Scripture  informs  us  that  this  means 
of  communication  was  employed  by  the  first  man  and  woman, 
as  well  as  their  immediate  descendants ;  and  we  are  hence 
forced  to  the  conclusion  that  it  was  the  result  of  a  direct 
revelation  from  on  high. 

Nevertheless,  while  the  elements  were  thus  imparted  by 
God,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  much  was  left  for  man  to 
perfect ;  and  that,  just  as  a  mind  was  given  to  him  which  he 
is  required  to  cultivate  and  fit  for  the  performance  of  its 
duties  by  a  long  course  of  training,  so  the  mere  elements 
were  imparted,  out  of  which  he  had  to  form  by  successive 
improvements  a  perfect  means  of  communication.  "  Three 
things,"  says  Scaliger,  "  have  contributed  to  enable  man  to 
perfect  language, — necessity,  practice,  and  the  desire  to 
please.  Necessity  produced  a  collection  of  words  very  im- 
perfectly connected;  practice,  in  multiplying  them,  gave 
them  more  expression ;  while  it  is  to  the  desire  of  pleasing  that 
we  owe  those  agreeable  turns,  those  happy  collocations  of 
words,  which  impart  to  phrases  both  elegance  and  grace." 

We  are  confirmed  in  this  supposition  by  the  fact  that  the 
history  of  many  languages  shows  a  gradual  progress  from 
imperfect  beginnings  to  a  finished  state,  and  that  there  is 
hardly  any  cultivated  tongue,  which,  if  traced  back  to  its 
earlier  ages,  will  not  be  found  either  defective  in  some  of  its 
parts  or  wanting  in  those  characteristics  which  are  a  source 

§  4.  Leaving  these  theories,  by  -whom  must  we  conclude  that  language  was  in- 
vented  ?  If  it  was  devised  by  man,  what  would  we  find  on  looking  back  at  the 
history  of  early  times  ?  Was  this  the  case  ?  What  does  Scripture  inform  us  with 
regard  to  the  first  man  and  woman,  and  their  immediate  descendants  ?  What  fol- 
lows from  this  ?  Was  any  thing  left  for  man  to  perfect  ?  According  to  Scaliger, 
by  what  was  man  enabled  to  perfect  language  ?  What  did  necessity  produce  ? 
What  did  practice  impart  to  them  ?    What  do  we  owe  to  the  desire  of  pleasing  ? 


20  WEITTEN  LANGUAGE. 

of  beauty  and  strength.  The  language  of  a  nation,  traced 
through  the  successive  eras  of  its  existence,  will  be  found  to 
have  undergone  a  series  of  improvements,  in  all  respects 
analogous  to  the  advances  which  have  been  made  in  the  in- 
stitutions and  social  condition  of  the  people  who  speak  it. 
In  the  first  great  antediluvian  language,  similar  changes 
must  have  occurred. 

It  may  be  added  that  the  divine  origin  of  language  is 
maintained  by  a  nimiber  of  our  best  writers.  Locke,  in  his 
"  Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding",  Book  III.,  chap.  1, 
sec.  1,  says :  "  God,  having  designed  man  for  a  sociable  crea- 
ture, made  him  not  only  with  an  inclination  and  under  a  ne- 
cessity to  have  fellowship  with  those  of  his  own  kind ;  but 
furnished  liim,  also,  with  language,  which  was  to  be  the  great 
instrument  and  common  tie  of  society." 


LESSON    III. 

WRITTEN     LANGUAGE. 

§  5.  Ideas  may  be  communicated  by  written,  as  well  as 
spoken,  language.  The  latter  represents  ideas  by  articulate 
sounds ;  the  former  employs  certain  arbitrary  characters  to 
represent  these  articulate  sounds,  and  thus  through  a  double 
medium  conveys  the  ideas  themselves.  It  is  written  lan- 
guage alone  that  gives  permanence  to  thoughts. 

§  6.  Written  language  was  de^-ised  by  man.  The  exact 
period  of  its  origin  is  unknown ;  but  it  is  supposed  not  to 
have  been  invented  until  several  centuries  after  men  were  in 
possession  of  a  complete  system  of  sjwken  language.     The 

Wliat  fact  confirms  ns  in  the  belief  that  in  languajrc  much  was  left  for  man  to 
perfect?    What  is  Locke's  view  of  the  orl^'ln  of  language  ? 

§  5.  What  else  besides  spoken  language  enables  us  to  communicate  Ideas  ? 
How  does  spoken  language  represent  ideas  ?  How,  written  language  ?  Which 
gives  permanence  to  thoughts  ? 

S  0.  By  whom  was  written  language  deriscdt    When  is  it  supposed  to  hare 


WRITTEN  LANGUAGE.  21 

systems  first  employed  were  necessarily  rude  and  imperfect ; 
but,  as  men  increased  in  experience  and  knowledge,  succes- 
sive improvements  were  made,  until  at  last  the  present  sim- 
ple method  was  devised.  Four  systems  have  been  employed 
in  different  ages  and  countries ;  the  Ideographic,  the  Verbal, 
the  Syllabic,  and  the  Alphabetic. 

§  7.  Ideographic  System, — The  earliest  method  of  con- 
veying thoughts  by  means  of  written  characters  is  called 
Ideographic.  It  represented  material  objects  and  facts  by 
means  of  pictures  ;  and  what  was  not  material  or  visible,  but 
was  merely  conceived  in  the  mind,  and  could  not,  therefore, 
be  thus  depicted,  by  symbols.  Thus  the  idea  of  a  battle 
was  conveyed  by  a  pictorial  representation  of  two  men  en- 
gaged in  fighting ;  while  the  abstract  idea  of  eternity  was 
denoted  by  a  circle,  which,  being  without  beginning  or  end, 
was  an  appropriate  emblem.  It  represented  things  them- 
selves, and  not  their  names. 

The  hieroglyphics  *  of  Egypt  were,  in  part.  Ideographic. 
The  Mexicans,  also,  used  this  system  at  the  time  of  Cortes' 
invasion ;  their  king  was  informed  of  the  arrival  of  the  Span- 
iards and  their  ships,  by  pieces  of  white  linen  on  which  were 
painted  objects  resembling  vessels,  and  men  in  Spanish 
garb.  Ideographic  writing  is  also  said  to  have  been  era- 
ployed  by  some  of  the  North  American  Indians. 

§  8.  Verbal  System. — ^The  Verbal  system  is  second  in  point 
of  antiquity.     It  appropriated  a  peculiar  character  to  each 


*  This  word  signifies  "  sacred  carvings ",  being  derived  from  the 
Greek  words  i£p6g^  sacred^  and  yAi^^w,  to  carve. 


"been  invented  ?  What  was  its  character  at  first?  What  change  took  place  as  men 
increased  in  knowledge  ?    How  many  systems  have  prevailed  ? 

§  7.  What  is  the  earliest  system  called  ?  How  did  it  represent  material  ob- 
jects ?  How,  what  was  not  material  or  visible  ?  Give  an  example.  Did  it  rep- 
resent objects  themselves,  or  their  names  ?  To  what  system  did  the  hieroglyph- 
ics of  Egypt,  in  part,  belong  ?  What  other  people  used  this  system  ?  How  was 
the  Mexican  king  informed  of  the  Spaniards'  arrival  ?  By  what  other  race  has 
Ideographic  writing  been  employed  ? 

§  8.  What  is  the  second  system  called  ?   How  did  it  represent  material  objects 


22  WEITTEN  LANGUAGE. 

object  and  idea,  without  reference  to  the  word  by  which  such 
object  or  idea  was  represented.  Tliis  was  an  improvement  oi^ 
the  Ideographic  system,  but  was  objectionable  on  account  of 
the  great  number  of  characters  required.  Cliinese,  at  the 
present  day,  is  written  in  a  measure  according  to  this  system. 
Old  authorities  inform  us  that  it  employs  no  less  than  80,000 
characters ;  later  researches,  however,  prove  the  number  to 
be  considerably  smaller.  As  each  character  represents  an 
object  or  abstract  idea,  and  not  merely  a  soimd,  it  follows 
that  any  thing  written  according  to  this  system  is  understood 
by  all  that  are  acquainted  ^vith  the  characters,  although  their 
own  spoken  languages  may  be  totally  different ;  just  as  the 
value  of  figures  in  their  various  combinations  is  universally 
known  to  the  nations  of  Europe,  notwithstanding  the  differ- 
ence in  their  respective  tongues.  The  written  language  of 
the  Chinese  Empire,  accordingly,  is  read  and  understood  by 
the  people  of  Japan,  Corea,  Loo-choo,  and  Cochin  China,  as 
well  as  by  various  other  tribes  who  are  unable  to  hold  the 
sHghtest  oral  intercourse  with  each  other. 

It  is  proper  to  add  that  this  i3  denied  by  some,  who  contend  that 
Chinese  is  written  mainly  according  to  the  Syllabic  system,  a  description 
of  which  follows.  If  any  Japanese  or  Coreans  are  found  to  understand 
written  Chinese,  it  is,  according  to  these  authorities,  from  their  having 
studied  it,  or  else  on  account  of  its  resemblance  to  their  own  written  sys- 
tems. Our  present  greatly  increased  facihties  for  obtaining  information 
respecting  the  people  of  the  Celestial  Empire  and  their  pecuharities,  will 
soon  dissipate  all  uncertainty  on  this  subject ;  and  we  shall  probably  find 
that  each  opinion  has  some  foundation  in  truth.  It  is  likely  either  that 
the  characters  are  partly  Verbal  and  partly  Syllabic,  or  else  that  there 
are  two  distinct  systems,  originally  perhaps  used  by  different  classes,  but 
now  employed  indiscriminately  at  the  option  of  the  writer. 

and  abstract  ideas  ?  Wliat  rendered  it  objectionable  ?  In  what  langna^  is  it 
still  employed  ?  How  many  characters  arc  required  in  tliis  langnagfo  ?  Need  ono 
understand  the  spoken  language,  in  order  to  understand  a  written  language  in 
which  the  Verbal  system  is  employed  ?  Give  an  example.  Inillnstrationof  this, 
what  is  mentioned  with  regard  to  the  written  language  of  the  Chinese  Empire  ? 
Wliat  account  do  other  authorities  give  of  written  Chinese  ?  How  do  they  ox- 
plain  the  fact  that  some  Japanese  and  Coreans  arc  found  to  undorstitid  it  ?  What 
is  probable  with  regard  to  theeo  different  opinions  f 


WRITTEN   LANGUAGE.  23 

§  9.  Syllabic  System. — By  the  two  systems  above  de- 
scribed, things  themselves  were  represented  without  refer- 
ence to  the  soimds  by  which  they  are  denoted.  But  the  fre- 
quent recurrence  of  the  same  syllables  in  the  names  of  things 
soon  led  men  to  see  the  advantages  that  would  be  gained  by 
representing  the  sound  instead  of  the  thing  signified ;  and 
hence  originated  a  third  method,  commonly  called  the  Syl- 
labic system.  In  this,  certain  characters  were  employed  to 
represent,  not  objects,  but  syllabic  sounds,  by  a  combination 
of  which  the  names  of  things  were  denoted.  Thus  the  word 
agriculture  would  be  expressed  by  four  characters  only,  one 
representing  each  syllable.  Though  this  was  a  great  im- 
provement on  the  Verbal  System,  it  was  also  objectionable 
on  account  of  the  number  of  characters  required.  It  is 
thought  at  one  time  to  have  been  used  by  many  Asiatic  na- 
tions ;  and  is  still  the  basis,  though  in  a  somewhat  modified 
form,  of  the  written  language  of  the  Ethiopians  and  that  of 
the  Siamese. 

§  10.  Alphabetic  System. — ^The  defects  incident  to  the 
systems  described  above  finally  taught  man  the  necessity  of 
inventing  some  new  method  of  conveying  his  thoughts ;  and 
hence  resulted  the  introduction  and  ultimate  perfection  of 
Alphabetic  writing,  which  is  used  in  almost  all  languages  at 
the  present  day.  This  may  be  regarded  as  the  greatest  of 
human  inventions,  and  has  contributed  more  than  any  thing 
else  to  the  progress  of  civilization.  According  to  this  system, 
the  simple  soimds  of  the  human  voice  are  represented  by 
appropriate  marks  or  letters,  by  combining  which  syllables 
and  words  are  formed;  and  that  with  such  precision  and 

§  9.  How  were  ideas  represented  by  the  two  Bystems  already  described  ? 
What  system  was  next  invented  ?  According  to  the  Syllabic  system,  what  did 
each  character  represent?  How  were  words  denoted?  How  many  characters 
would  this  system  require  to  express  the  word  agriculture  f  How  did  the  Sylla- 
bic compare  with  the  Verbal  system  ?  What  rendered  the  Syllabic  «ystem  ob- 
jectionable ?  By  what  nations  was  it  at  one  time  employed  ?  In  what  written 
language  is  it  still  used  ? 

§  10.  By  the  defects  of  these  systems,  what  was  man  finally  taught?  What 
eyatem  was  next  invented?    How  may  it  be  regarded?    What  are  represented 


24:  ALPHABETIC   WRITING. 

completeness  that  not  only  can  all  material  objects  be  de- 
noted and  described,  but  also  abstract  ideas,  the  emotions 
of  the  mind,  and  every  variety  of  thought. 


LESSON   IV. 

ALPHABETIC    WRITING. 

§  11.  Derivation. — The  word  alphabet  is  derived  from 
aA^a,  pTjra^  the  first  two  Greek  characters,  and  signifies  the 
letters  of  a  written  language  disposed  in  their  regular  order. 

§  12.  Origin. — The  inventors  of  alphabetic  writing  are 
unknown.  According  to  the  Jewish  Rabbis,  it  is  of  divine 
origin.  "  God,"  says  one  of  their  number,  "  created  letters' 
on  the  evening  of  the  first  Sabbath."  Adam  Clarke  also  in- 
clines to  this  opinion,  although  he  places  the  revelation  at  a 
later  date,  maintaining  that  God  taught  Moses  the  use  of  let- 
ters by  writing  the  Ten  Commandments  with  His  ovm  finger 
on  the  tables  of  stone.  Eusebius,  Clemens  of  Alexandria, 
Cornelius  Agrippa,  and  others,  attribute  this  noble  invention 
to  Moses  himself;  Philo,  to  Abraham;  Irenaeus  and  others, 
to  Enoch,  who  is  by  some  thought  to  have  been  the  author 
of  a  work  still  extant,  to  which  there  is  an  apparent  allusion 
in  the  14th  and  the  15th  verse  of  St.  Jude's  Epistle.  Biblian- 
der  considers  Adam  entitled  to  the  honor  of  the  invention ; 
and  the  Sabians  actually  produce  a  book  which  they  pretend 
was  written  by  this  patriarch.  If,  however,  letters  were  kno^^^l 
at  this  early  jjcriod,  it  can  hardly  be  explained  why  men,  in 
spite  of  the  vastly  superior  facilities  they  afford,  should  have 
gone  back  to  the  ideographic  or  the  syllabic  system. 

by  the  characters  employed  in  the  Alphabetic  system  ?  By  combining  these  chap- 
4ct«r8,  what  are  formed  ? 

§  11.  From  what  is  the  word  alp/iabei  derived  ?    What  does  it  p!;^Hy  ? 

§  12.  What  is  said  of  the  inventors  of  alphabetic  writinc:  ?  To  whom  do  the 
Jewish  Rabbis  attribute  its  invention?  What  is  Adam  Clarke's  opinion?  To 
whom  do  Eusebius,  Clemens,  and  Cornelius  Agrippa  attribute  it?  To  whom, 
Philo  ?    To  whom,  Ireneeus  ?    What  reason  is  there  for  supposing  Enoch  to  have 


ALPHABETIC   WRITING.  25 

Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  the  invention  of  letters 
was  generally  attributed  to  the  Phoenicians.*  For  the  Greeks 
this  was  natural,  as  they  received  the  greater  part  of  their 
alphabet  directly  from  Cadmus,  a  native  of  Phoenicia,  and 
would  therefore  be  likely  to  think  that  the  honor  of  the  inven- 
tion belonged  to  that  country.  Yet  it  is  clear  that  some  of 
the  most  learned  of  the  Greeks  regarded  Cadmus  in  his  true 
light ;  not  as  the  inventor,  but  merely  as  the  introducer,  of  let- 
ters. Plato  expressly  says  that  Thaut,  the  Egyptian,  was  the 
first  to  divide  letters  into  vowels  and  consonants,  mutes  and 
liquids.  An  individual  of  this  same  name,  Thaut  or  Taaut,  is 
also  mentioned  by  Sanchoniathon,  the  historian,  as  the  inven- 
tor of  letters,  but  is  claimed  by  him  as  a  Phoenician,  living  in 
the  12th  or  the  13th  generation  after  the  Deluge.  To  reconcile 
these  conflicting  accounts,  Jackson,  in  his  "  Chronological  An- 
tiquities ",  holds  that  letters  w^ere  invented  by  Taaut  or  Thoth, 
the  Phoenician,  a  son  of  Misraim,  about  five  centuries  after 
the  Deluge,  but  were  introduced  into  Egypt  four  hundred  years 
afterwards  by  a  second  Taaut ;  whom  he  supposes  to  have  been 
identical  with  the  celebrated  Hermes  Trismegistus  of  the 
Greeks,  the  inventor,  according  to  Diodorus,  of  grammar, 
music,  letters,  and  writing.  Whether  this  supposition  is  cor- 
rect or  not,  we  may  fairly  conclude  that,  whichever  of  these 
nations  first  employed  letters,  they  were  not  long  in  becoming 
known  to  the  other ;  as  the  commercial  relations  of  the  Egyp- 


*Ipsa  gens  Phoenicum  in  gloria  magna  est  literarura  invcntionis. 
*  The  race  of  Phoenicians  themselves  enjoy  the  great  glory  of  the  inven- 
tion of  letters.' — Pliny,  Book  v.,  chap.  12. 

Phoenices  primi  (famse  si  credimus)  ausi 
Mansuram  rudibus  vocem  signare  figuris. — Lucax 

been  acquainted  with  this  system  ?  By  whom  does  Bibliander  think  it  was  in- 
vented ?  What  evidence  of  this  is  funiished  by  the  Sahians  ?  What  objection  is 
there  to  the  supposition  that  letters  were  known  thus  early  ? 

To  whom  did  the  Greeks  and  Romans  attribute  the  invention  of  letters  ?  What 
led  the  Greeks  to  this  opinion  ?  How  did  some  of  the  most  learned  Greeks  regard 
Cadmus  ?  Whom  does  Plato  mention  in  connection  with  the  classification  of  let- 
ters ?  Who  else  alludes  to  this  Thaut  ?  W^hat  does  Sanchoniathon  say  of  him  ? 
How  does  Jackson  explam  this  inconsistency  ?  With  what  Greek  personage  does 
2 


26  ALPHABETIC   WEITING. 

tians  and  Phoenicians  were  intimate,  and  likely  to  make  their 
respective  inventions  common  property. 

According  to  some  late  writers  who  are  versed  in  Oriental 
literatm-e,  the  claims  of  the  Indians  to  the  honor  of  havin- 
ae vised  letters  are  not  without  some  weight.  The  Sanscrit, 
which  is  the  most  refined  of  the  Indian  languages,  is  supposed 
to  have  been  one  of  the  most  ancient  now  existing,  and  is  the 
parent  of  almost  every  dialect  of  Southern  Asia.  The  Hin- 
doos assert  that  they  were  acquainted  with  letters  before  any 
other  nation  on  the  globe ;  and  that,  in  their  ancient  books, 
sages  from  Egypt  and  other  coimtries  are  represented  as  com- 
ing to  India,  to  inform  themselves  respecting  alphabetic  writ- 
ing and  other  inventions  for  which  the  Hindoos  were  at  that 
early  period  distinguished.  As,  however,  none  of  these  an- 
cient books  have  yet  made  their  appearance  in  Europe,  and , 
as  national  vanity  has  led  the  Orientals  generally  to  exagger- 
ate their  ancient  standing  in  literature,  art,  and  science,  we 
can  hardly  weigh  these  unsupported  statements  against  the 
positive  testimony  presented  from  other  quarters. 

Modern  scholars  seem  to  be  divided  in  opinion  as  to 
whether  this  great  invention  is  due  to  the  Phoenicians  or  the 
Hebrews.  Mr.  Astle,  whose  essay  on  "  The  Origin  and  Prog- 
ress of  "Writing "  displays  great  research  and  is  justly  n 
garded  as  high  authority,  on  the  evidence  of  the  ancients,  pro- 
nounces in  favor  of  the  Phoenicians.  It  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that  while  the  Greeks  were  well  acquainted  with 
the  latter  nation  on  account  of  their  intimate  commercial  rela^ 
tions,  to  the  Hebrews  they  were  almost  entire  strangers ;  and 
hence,  though  their  evidence  may  be  reliable  as  regards  the 
clauns  of  the  Phoenician  alphabet  to  an  antiquity  greater  than 

ho  pupposo  this  Bccond  Taaut  to  have  hocn  identical  ?    What  is  said  o(  tho  rclr. 
lioiiH  iluxt  eubslsted  betwecu  thu  Et;yptiaus  and  tlio  Phoenicians  ? 

What  other  i)Cople  claim  to  have  Invented  letters  ?  \\Tiat  ia  said  of  the  S:i 
Fcrit  languajjo  ?  What  do  tho  Uindoos  aasort  with  rcj^rd  to  tlieir  ancient  bookt^ 
Have  wc  any  reason  to  hcliovo  their  statomentsj  ? 

What  arc  tho  views  of  modem  ncholirs  on  this  point  ?  In  whose  favor  does 
Mr.  Astle  decide  ?  Wliat  re4X8on  U  there  for  enpposln?:  that  tho  Greeks  may  have 
been  mistaken  In  attributing  tho  inveJUlon  of  letters  to  the  Phasnlclans?    From 


ALPHABETIC   WRITmG.  27 

either  the  Egyptian  or  the  Syrian  can  boast,  they  must  still 
have  been  unqualified  to  pronounce  between  it  and  the  He- 
brew. From  the  latter,  indeed,  the  Phoenician  alphabet  is 
now  generally  thought  to  have  been  derived.  It  is  at  least  well 
known  that  writing  was  practised  among  the  Jews  long  before 
we  have  any  evidence  of  its  having  been  in  use  among  the 
Phoenicians.  The  Pentateuch  itself  is  a  living  proof  that  al- 
jjhabetic  writing  was  known  to  Moses,  while  the  frequent  allu- 
sions to  that  art  which  it  contains  show  that  this  knowledge 
was  not  confined  to  the  legislator  alone.*  The  injunction  con- 
tained in  the  9th  verse  of  the  6th  chapter  of  Deuteronomy, 
that  the  people  should  write  the  words  of  the  law  on  the  posts 
of  their  houses  and  on  their  gates,  proves  such  a  general  ac- 
quaintance with  the  art  as  to  justify  the  inference  that  it  was 
then  no  recent  invention,  but  had  been  known  and  used  for 
years.  The  suggestion  urged  by  some  that  the  writing  here 
alluded  to,  as  well  as  that  in  which  the  five  books  of  Moses 
were  originally  composed,  may  have  been  according  to  the 
hieroglyphic  or  syllabic  system,  is  inadmissible ;  for  we  have 
not  the  slightest  trace  of  the  existence  of  these  sacred  books 
in  any  other  form  than  that  which  they  now  bear. 

Nor  are  we  by  any  means  driven  to  the  inference  which 
some  have  drawn  from  the  passage,  that  the  Deity  himself 
communicated  to  Moses,  and  through  him  to  the  human  race, 
a  knowledge  of  the  alphabetic  system.  Had  so  important  a 
revelation  been  made,  we  have  every  reason  to  suppose  that 
it  would  have  been  recorded  in  distinct  terms  by  the  Jewish 
legislator. 


*  See  Exodus,  xxiv.,  12;   xxxii.,  15,  IG;    xvii.,  14;    xxxiv.,  1,27: 
Numbers,  xxxiii.,  2  :  Deuteronomy,  xxvii.,  3. 

what  alphabet  is  the  Phoenician  supposed  to  have  been  dei*ived  ?  How  early  was 
alplmbetic  writing  known  among  the  Jews  ?  What  leads  us  to  suppose  that  the 
people  generally  were  acquainted  with  the  art  ?  What  precludes  us  from  suppos- 
ing that  the  writing  here  alluded  to  was  according  to  some  earlier  system  ?  Wliat 
inference  has  been  drawn  from  these  passages  ?  What  renders  it  unlikely  that 
this  was  the  case  ? 


28  ALPHABETIC  WEITINO. 

§  13.  The  Greek  Alphabet  and  its  Derivatives. — W}iat- 
cver  alphabet  may  have  been  the  most  aiicient,  one  fact  is 
clearly  established ;  that  Cadmus  introduced  sixteen  letters 
from  Phoenicia  into  Greece,  to  which  Palamedes  subsequently 
added  four,  and  Simonides,  at  a  still  later  period,  four  more. 

The  PhoDnician  language  was  written  from  right  to  left  The  Greek 
at  first  followed  it  in  this  respect ;  but  was  in  course  of  time  written 
I'rom  right  to  left,  and  from  left  to  right,  alternately,  as  land  is  ploughed. 
The  laws  of  Solon  were  engraved  in  this  style,  about  600  B.  C,  as  also 
were  many  inscriptions  still  to  be  seen  on  ancient  monuments.  Soon 
after  this  period,  however,  the  present  manner  of  writing,  from  left  to 
right,  came  into  general  use.  It  had  been  introduced  many  years  before 
by  Pronapides,  who,  according  to  some,  was  a  teacher  of  Ilomor's. 

From  the  Greek  alphabet,  the  Etruscan,  Oscan,  Latin,  Coptic,  and 
others,  were  formed.  The  Latin  alphabet  contained  twenty-five  letters. 
From  it,  ours  is  derived.  The  number  and  form  of  the  Latin  letters  are 
retained  in  English  without  any  further  change  than  the  addition  of  IT. 

§  14.  Comparison  of  Different  Alphabets. — As  letters  are 
merely  arbitrary  marks  used  to  denote  the  elementary  sounds 
(jf  which  spoken  language  is  composed,  the  number  of  letters 
in  the  alphabet  of  any  people  ought  to  correspond  exactly  with 
the  number  of  such  sounds  which  they  employ.  Yet  in  no 
language  do  we  find  tliis  to  be  the  case.  In  some  the  alpha- 
betic characters  are  the  more  numerous,  in  consequence  both 
of  the  admission  of  more  than  one  letter  to  express  the  same 
sound,  and  of  the  introduction  of  characters  to  denote  com- 
l)ound  sounds  which  could  otherwise  be  perfectly  represented 
by  combinations.  In  other  languages  some  sounds  are  en- 
tirely unrepresented,  and  consequently  in  these  there  is  a 


§13.  Who  Introduced  lettcrft  Into  Oroccc,  and  liow  many  were  there ?  Uow 
many  were  Bul)»<tquently  added,  and  by  whom  ? 

How  was  tlic  Phoenician  lan^iage  written  ?  What  other  lonpmago  was  written 
similarly  to  it?  Wliat  chanfjo  was  aflcrwanls  made  as  regards  the  Greek  liui- 
Kuagc  ?  What  laws  were  written  in  tliis  style  ?  By  whom  was  the  present  method 
of  writ  in  J,'  introduced?  What  nlphabetf  wore  derived  from  the  Grcelc?  How 
m.iny  letters  did  the  Latin  alphabet  contain  ?  What  alphabet  was  derived  from 
it  ?    How  do  the  two  correspond  ? 

%  It.  What  are  letterw  ?  With  what  oujrbt  the  number  of  letters  In  the  alpha- 
bel  of  any  people  to  correspond  ?  Do  we  find  uuch  a  correspondence  ?  What  is 
the  reason  of  this  Inconsistency  ?    Ilow  do  the  different  alphabets  compare  In  th« 


I^OKMATiON  Ot  LANGUAGE.  29 

deficiency  of  alphabetic  characters.  Hence,  though  about 
the  same  number  of  elemental  sounds  are  in  use  among  dif- 
ferent nations,  there  will  be  found  no  little  difference  in  the 
number  of  letters  composing  their  various  alphabets. 

Thus,  the  English  alphabet  contains  26  letters  ;  the  French,  25  ;  the 
Italian,  22  ;  the  Spanish,  27 ;  the  Russian,  41  ;  the  Hebrew,  Samaritan, 
Syrian,  and  Chaldean,  each  22 ;  the  Arabic,  28 ;  the  Persian  and  Egyp- 
tian, each  32 ;  the  Turkish,  33  ;  the  Georgian,  86  ;  the  Armenian,  38  ;  the 
Sanscrit,  50 ;  the  Abyssinian,  202  ;  and  the  Indian,  or  Brahmanic,  240. 


LESSON   V. 

rOEMATION   OF   LAN^GUAGE. 

§  15.  TiiEEE  is  every  reason,  as  we  have  seen,  to  believe 
that,  while  in  the  invention  of  language  man  was  assist*^d  by 
the  Deity,  it  was  still  only  after  many  years  of  gradual  de- 
velopment and  improvement  that  it  arrived  at  its  present 
perfection.  As  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  ascertain  how  far 
divine  assistance  was  vouchsafed,  we  shall  consider  the  steps 
of  formation  as  it  is  most  likely  they  would  be  taken  by  man, 
independently  of  a  direct  revelation,  under  the  stimulus  of 
necessity  and  the  desire  of  pleasing. 

The  first  words  were,  no  doubt.  Interjections  ;  for  it  would 
be  natural  for  men,  however  savage  or  ignorant  of  the  use  of 
words,  to  employ  exclamations  for  the  purpose  of  expressing 
their  sudden  emotions.  The  words  that  next  came  into  use 
did  not  probably  denote  the  name  of  any  particular  object ; 
but  were  such  as  expressed  a  whole  sentence,  indicative  of 

number  of  their  sounds,  and  how  in  the  number  of  their  letters  ?  How  many 
letters  docs  the  English  alphabet  contain?  The  French?  Italian?  Spanish? 
Russian  ?  Hebrew,  Samaritan,  Syriac,  and  Chaldean  ?  Arabic  ?  Persian  and 
Eijyptian?  Turkish?  Georgian?  Armenian?  Sanscrit?  Abyssinian?  Indian, 
or  Brahmanic  ? 

§  15.  Is  it  probable  that  a  complete  system  of  language  was  given  to  man  ?  How 
has  it  been  brought  to  its  present  perfection  ?  What  words,  is  it  supposed,  were 
first  employed  ?   Explain  the  reason.   What  words  next  came  into  use  ?   Give  an 


30  FORMATION   OF  LANGUAGE. 

desires  or  fears,  or  intended  to  convey  some  important  news 
or  information ;  as,  the  enemy  is  coming,  the  victory  is  ours. 

Individual  objects  next  engaged  attention.  The  savage 
lived,  we  will  say,  in  the  midst  of  a  forest.  Inasmuch  as  he 
derived  his  means  of  subsistence  partly  from  certain  trees 
which  it  contained,  he  was  soon  compelled,  in  his  intercourse 
with  others,  to  allude  to  them,  and  represent  them  by  some 
name,  or,  as  grammarians  would  say.  Noun.  This  appella- 
tion he  at  first  probably  applied  to  all  similar  objects.  It 
was  not  till  experience  taught  him  the  difference  between 
oaks,  cyi^resses,  cedars,  &c.,  and  their  respective  peculiarities, 
that  he  gave  them  specific  names.  As  it  often  became  neces- 
sary to  allude  to  more  than  one,  it  was  not  long  before  a  dis- 
tinct form  was  adopted  to  denote  the  plural  number. 

Before  all  the  visible  objects  of  creation  had  been  thus 
arranged  into  classes  and  distinguished  by  general  appella- 
tions, and  before  experience  and  observation  had  assigned  par- 
ticular names  to  the  various  species,  it  must  have  been  neces- 
sary for  men  occasionally  to  allude  to  a  specific  object  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  rest  of  its  class.  To  identify  it,  therefore, 
intelhgibly  to  another,  they  would  have  to  distinguish  it  by 
stating  either  its  distinctive  qualities  or  the  relations  in  which 
it  stood  to  other  objects.  Thus,  if  they  desired  to  allude  to 
a  tree  of  particular  size,  or  one  standing  by  a  s])ring,  instead 
of  characterizing  it  as  the  fir  or  the  elm,  they  would  naturally 
say,  the  large  tree,  the  tree  by  the  spring.  In  this  way  were 
formed  Adjectives,  which  generally  express  quality,  and  Prei> 
ositions,  which  indicate  the  relations  subsisting  between 
nouns  (often  called  substantives)  and  other  words. 

Though  several  important  steps  had  by  this  time  been 
taken  towards  the  formation  of  a  complete  system  of  lan- 
guage, yet  the  means  which  it  afforded  of  distinguishing  ol>- 

cxample.  Describe  tho  way  In  which  NounB  were  formed.  When  were  epeciti' 
nameB  coined  ?  What  dietlnct  form  was  nftorwards  adopted,  and  why  ?  Describe 
the  necessity  which  called  for  the  Adjective.  Give  an  example.  What  other 
class  of  words  had  the  name  origin  ?  Give  an  example.  Give  an  account  of  the 
origin  of  the  Adjective  rrououus  Viis  and  that.    What  Article  origiuatcd  in  the 


FOEMATION   OF   LANGUAGE.  31 

jects  were  still  imperfect ;  for,  when  any  substantive  was 
used  in  discourse,  as  tree,  river,  horse,  how  was  it  to  be  known 
which  of  the  many  individuals  embraced  in  the  general  class, 
which  tree,  river,  or  horse,  was  meant  ?  When  the  thing 
alluded  to  was  within  the  range  of  sight,  it  could  without 
difficulty  be  pointed  out  by  a  movement  of  the  hand ;  but, 
when  this  was  not  the  case,  it  became  necessary  to  invent 
words  by  which  the  particular  object  intended  could  be 
specified.  Hence  arose  the  Adjective  Pronouns  this  and  that, 
and  the  Article  the. 

Verbs  must  necessarily  have  been  coeval  with  the  first 
attempts  towards  the  formation  of  language,  as  no  affirma- 
tion can  be  expressed  without  the  assistance  of  this  part  of 
speech.  We  seldom  speak  except  to  express  our  opinion 
that  something  is  or  is  not,  that  some  act  does  or  does  not 
take  place ;  and  the  word  which  affirms  the  fact  or  state  is 
always  a  Verb. 

Thus,  then,  we  have  seen  Interjections,  Nouns,  Adjec- 
tives, Prepositions,  Articles,  Adjectives,  Pronouns,  and  Verbs, 
successively  called  for  by  the  wants  of  men,  and  consequently 
invented  as  component  parts  of  language.  Personal  Pro- 
nouns were  probably  the  creation  of  a  later  age.  A  young 
child,  it  has  been  observed,  almost  invariably  repeats  the 
noun  instead  of  using  the  substitute.  Speaking  of  himself, 
a  child  would  be  likely  to  say,  "Give  Johnny  Johnny's 
whistle,"  and  not  "  Give  me  my  whistle."  So  great,  indeed, 
seems  to  be  the  disinclination  of  youthful  minds  to  multiply 
terms  that  it  is  often  found  quite  difficult  to  teach  them  the 
use  of  the  pronoun.  Such  was  the  case,  in  all  probability, 
with  man  in  tho  infancy  of  his  being;  and  it  is  not  Hkely 
that  he  added  this  new  species  of  words  to  his  primitive  and 
necessary  stock,  until  sufficient  advance  had  been  made  in 

same  way  ?  What  class  of  wor^s  is  required  for  the  expression  of  aflarmations  ? 
When  did  they  coino  iato  use  ? 

Of  what  class  of  words  have  we  thus  far  traced  the  origin  ?  What  part  of 
speech  was  the  creation  of  a  later  ag«  ?  Are  children  generally  inclined  to  use 
the  Personal  Pronoun  ?   What  do  they  employ  in  its  place  ?   What  is  gained  by 


32  FORMATION  OF  LANGUAGE. 

the  formative  process  to  sliow  their  great  advantage  as  re- 
gards brevity  of  expression  and  pleasantness  of  sound. 

Among  the  early  races  of  men,  it  seems  probable  that 
there  was  much  less  said  than  at  the  present  day.  Their  sen- 
tences were  at  once  fewer,  shorter,  and  simpler,  than  ours. 
As  successive  advances,  however,  were  made,  and  it  was  found 
that  natural  intercourse  was  a  source  of  pleasure,  men  did  not 
confine  themselves  simply  to  what  it  was  necessary  to  com- 
municate, but  imparted  freely  to  each  other  even  such 
thoughts  as  had  no  practical  bearing.  The  original  brief 
mode  of  expression  was  gradually  laid  aside ;  longer  senten- 
ces were  used ;  and  a  new  class  of  words  was  required,  to  con- 
nect clauses  so  closely  related  in  construction  and  sense  as 
not  to  admit  a  separation  into  distinct  jDeriods.  This  was  the 
origin  of  Conjunctions;  and  the  same  cause,  when  man's 
taste  was  still  further  improved  and  he  began  to  think  of 
beautifying  language  while  he  extended  its  jwwer  of  expres- 
sion, led  to  the  invention  of  the  Relative  Pronoun. 

To  tell  how,  when,  and  where  the  action  expressed  b}-  the 
verb  was  performed,  and  also  to  indicate  the  degree  in  v.hich 
any  object  possessed  a  certain  quahty,  as  for  instance  how 
tall  a  tree  was,  man's  inventive  faculties  were  not  long  in 
perceiving  that  a  new  species  of  words  was  required  and  in 
forming  them  accordingly.  Adverbs  were  thus  introduced ; 
and  with  them  the  elements  of  language,  or  Parts  of  Speech, 
as  they  are  tei-med,  were  complete.  Man  now  had  the  means 
of  expressing  fully  and  intelligibly  all  that  came  into  his 
mind ;  and  his  future  efforts  were  to  be  chrected,  not  to  the 
creation  of  new  elements,  but  to  improving  and  modifying 
those  already  devised,  to  harmonizing  the  whole  and  uniting 
them  in  a  consistent  system.    Up  to  this  iK)int  necessity  had 

the  use  of  the  Pereonal  Prononn  ?  What  was  the  character  of  the  Bcntcnces  used 
by  the  onrly  races  of  men  ?  What  chan^^e  took  place  in  the  course  of  time  ?  What 
kind  of  Bcntcnccs  came  into  nsc  ?  What  new  olasB  of  words  was  thns  required  ? 
What  parts  of  cpeccli  ori<rinated  in  this  way  ?  Describe  the  origin  of  Adverbs. 
Wliat  are  tlie  elements  of  lanj^iasiN  or  classes  of  words,  called  ?  After  the  forma- 
tlou  ofthc  parts  of  speech,  to  what  were  man's  efforts  directed  ? 


FORMATION   01?   LAKGUAGB;  S3 

operated ;  the  improvements  subsequently  made  must  be  at- 
tributed to  tiie  desire  of  pleasing. 

§  16.  In  thus  tracing  the  origin  of  the  Parts  of  Speech, 
we  have. based  our  theory  and  deductions  on  the  supposition 
that  man's  starting-point  was  a  state  of  utter  ignorance.  It 
is  behoved  by  many  that  this  ignorance  was  entailed  on  the 
human  race  at  the  same  time  with  death,  as  a  punishment  for 
the  first  disobedience ;  that,  immediately  on  their  expulsion 
from  Eden,  our  first  parents  lost  that  enlightenment  with 
which  they  had  been  originally  endowed  by  the  Deity.  Othen^ 
think  that  this  sinking  to  savagism  was  gradual,  and  was  the 
result  of  the  moral  degradation  which,  as  the  Bible  informs 
us,  characterized  most  of  the  descendants  of  Adam  at  the 
time  of  the  Deluge.  In  either  of  these  cases,  or  if  there  was 
no  direct  revelation  from  on  high,  the  successive  steps  in  the 
fonnation  of  language  were  probabl}^  similar  to  those  de- 
scribed above,  for  such  would  be  their  natural  order.  If  God 
did  assist  men  directly,  it  is  likely  that  He  merely  put  them 
in  possession  of  such  elements  as  barely  enabled  them  to 
communicate  with  each  other  what  was  absolutely  essential, 
and  that  much  was  left  for  human  ingenuity  to  devise ;  in 
which  case,  also,  w^e  may  conclude  that  the  steps  of  forma- 
tion were  successively  taken  in  the  order  described  above. 

Ill  what  condition  men  were  as  regards  their  language  at  the  time 
of  the  Dehige,  can  not  be  ascertained.  Different  communities  probably 
spoke  different  dialects,  of  gi-eater  or  less  comprehensiveness  and  power 
of  expression,  according  to  the  various  circumstances  of  their  position 
and  history. 

§  IG.  On  what  supposition  is  this  theory  of  the  origin  of  words  haecd  ?  AccorcTinjj 
to  some,  when  was  this  ignorance  entailed  on  man  ?  What  is  the  opinion  of  oth- 
cr:4  on  this  subject  ?  In  either  case,  what  seems  probable  with  respect  to  the 
steps  of  formation  ?  To  what  extent  is  it  likely  that  the  Deity  assisted  men  ? 
What  is  said  regarding  the  different  dialects  spoken  at  the  time  of  the  Deluge? 


34:  OKIOIN  OF  THE  ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

LESSON  VI. 

ORIGIN   OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

§  17.  JBritain  before  the  Bomati  Conquest. — The  earliest 
authentic  account  that  we  have  of  the  inhabitants  oi*  Britain 
is  from  Julius  Ca3sar,  by  whom  the  southern  part  of  the 
island  was  conquered  in  the  year  54  b.  c.  The  Roman  gen- 
eral informs  us  that  he  found  the  people  of  Kent  far  more 
civilized  than  the  rest,  and  adds  that  there  was  no  great  dif- 
ference between  their  customs  and  those  of  Graul.*  This  is 
not  to  be  wondered  at,  as  the  southern  part  of  the  island  was 
unquestionably  peopled  directly  from  Gaul ;  that  is,  from  the 
northern  districts  of  what  is  now  called  France,  wliich  lay 
directly  opposite  and  were  separated  from  it  by  a  strait  so 
narrow  as  to  prove  no  obstacle  to  emigration.  The  historian 
Tacitus,  who,  in  his  Life  of  Agricola,  takes  occasion  to  de- 
scribe the  ancient  British,  confirms  this  account.  He  remarks 
that  many  points  in  the  personal  appearance  of  the  Silures, 
or  inhabitants  of  South  "Wales,  together  vdih.  their  proximity 
to  the  Spanish  coast,  afford  sufficient  foundation  for  the  be- 
lief that  they  were  a  branch  of  the  Iberi,  or  first  settlers  of 
Spain ;  while  there  was  little  question  that  the  parts  oppo- 
site to  Gaul  had  been  seized  on  by  the  people  of  that  country, 
their  respective  languages,  religious  rites,  and  general  char- 
acteristics, bearing  a  marked  resemblance  to  each  other.} 


*  Ex  his  omnibus  longc  sunt  humanissimi  qui  Cantium  incohmt:  qu» 
rpgio  est  maritima  oranis ;  neque  multum  a  Gallica  differunt  consuctu- 
diuo. — CiESAK,  de  Bcllo  Gallico,  Lib.  V.,  c.  14. 

f  In  univcrsum  tamen  testimanti,  Gallos  vicinum  solum  occupAsse 
credibile  est.  Eorum  sacra  reprehendas,  superstitionum  persuasionc: 
permo  baud  multum  diversus :  in  deposcendis  periculis  eadom  audacia, 

§  17.  Who  I'lirnlehes  ub  with  tho  earliest  authentic  account  of  the  people  of 
T^ritnin  ?  What  part  of  tho  island  did  Civsar  conquer,  and  when  ?  "Wlilch  of  the 
Inhabitants  did  he  And  most  civilized?  Whom  did  they  resemble  In  their  man- 
ners and  customs  ?  IIow  is  this  accounted  for  ?  Who  confirms  Caesar's  account  ? 
Where  did  tho  Silures  live  ?  From  whom,  according  to  Tacitus,  did  they  derive 
thoir  origin  f    By  whom  docs  ho  think  that  the  parts  opposite  Gaol  were 


OEIGIN   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  35 

The  great  Celtic  race  was  at  this  early  period  scattered 
over  the  whole  of  Southwestern  Europe;  and  no  doubt  suc- 
cessive bodies  had  found  their  way  to  Britain,  either  directly, 
or  after  a  temporary  residence  on  the  opposite  coasts  of  the 
continent.  At  the  time  of  Csesar's  invasion,  therefore,  in 
Britain,  as  well  as  in  Gaul  and  Spain,  dialects  of  the  great 
Celtic  tongue  were  spoken ;  but  it  was  not  to  this  original 
vernacular  that  our  English  of  the  present  day  owes  its  origin. 
We  allude  to  it  here  because  it  is  important  that  the  student 
should  be  acquainted  with  its  history  and  be  able  to  trace  its 
connection  with  om-  language,  in  the  formation  of  which  it  has 
had  its  share,-  in  a  measure  directly,  but  more  particularly 
through  the  medium  of  its  derivatives,  the  Latin  and  Norman 
French. 

Ireland  appears  to  have  been  originally  peopled  by  colonies  from 
Carthage,  and  through  this  channel  to  have  received  its  language  from 
the  Phoenicians,  to  whom  also  the  Celts  seem  to  have  been  indebted  for 
theirs.  Their  own  historians  declare  this  to  have  been  the  case ;  and  the 
Irish  language  was  originally  called  Beami  Feni,  or  the  Phosnician 
tongue.  No  inscription,  however,  is  to  be  found  in  Ireland  in  Phoenician 
characters ;  and  it  is  therefore  probable  that  the  colonies  which  emi- 
grated thither  from  Carthage  started  after  the  First  Punic  War,  for  it  was 
at  this  period  that  the  Carthaginians  gave  up  their  own  alphabet  for 
that  of  the  Romans.  Subsequently  to  this  settlement,  there  was  probably 
u  considerable  influx  of  Iberi  from  Spain ;  who  carried  with  them  their 
Celtic  dialect,  and,  grafting  it  on  the  Phoenician  before  in  use,  produced 
a  tongue  which,  though  not  identical  with  that  of  ancient  Britain,  bore  a 
close  resemblance  to  it. 


ct,  ubi  advenere,  in  detractandis  eadem  formido. — Tacitus,  Julii  Agrk- 
olce  Vita,  XI. 

peopled  ?  What  great  race  had  settled  in  Southwestern  Europe  ?  What  language 
prevailed  both  there  and  in  Britain,  at  the  time  of  Caesar's  invasion  ?  Is  Celtic 
the  groundwork  of  English  ?  What  share  has  it  had  in  the  formation  of  our  lan- 
guage ? 

Whence  does  Ireland  seem  to  have  been  peopled  ?  From  whom  did  it  receive 
its  language  ?  What  was  the  Irish  language  originally  called  ?  At  what  period 
f.s  it  probable  that  the  CarthaginLan  colonies  emigrated  to  Ireland  ?  What  reason 
is  there  for  this  supposition?  What  other  element,  besides  the  Phoenician 
tongue,  had  a  share  in  the  formation  of  ancient  Irish  ?  By  whom  was  the  Celtic 
litnguage  introduced  into  Ireland  ?    What  islands,  also,  were  colonized  by  the 


u(j  ORIGIN   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

The  Spaniards,  also,  wc  are  informed  by  Dionysius,*  colonized  tlu 
Scilly  Isles,  those  famous  Kassiteridcs,  renowned  among  the  ancients  for 
their  exhaustless  stores  of  tin.  The  Phoenicians  seem,  from  a  very  early 
date,  to  have  carried  on  an  extensive  commerce  with  these  islands,  for 
the  express  purpose  of  supplying  the  nations  on  the  Mediterranean  with 
this  useful  metal.  For  a  long  time  they  succeeded  in  keeping  the  posi- 
tion of  the  islands  a  secret ;  and  we  are  informed  that  a  Ph(pnician 
trader,  perceiving  himself  to  be  watched  by  a  Roman  merchantman,  ran 
his  vessel  ashore  rather  than  betray  their  locality,  and  was  recompensed 
for  his  loss  from  the  treasury  of  the  state.  The  successive  attempts  of 
different  nations  to  discover  these  valuable  islands  were,  however,  at 
last  successful ;  and  the  Kassiteridos,  as  well  as  the  large  islands  to  which 
they  were  adjacent,  were  soon  peopled  by  the  restless  Celts. 

§  18.  Celtic  Language. — The  Celtic  Latiguage  derives 
its  name  from  tlie  word  iW.roi^  the  appellation  given  by  the 
Greeks  to  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  Western  Europe,  wlio 
came  originally  from  the  same  stock  as  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  themselves,  but  had  pushed  their  migrations  further. 
The  name  was  afterwards  assumed  by  an  individual  tribe, 
who,  after  various  wanderings,  settled  in  Graul  immediately 
soutli  of  the  Loire.  Celtic  is  regarded  by  etymologists  as 
the  parent  of  most  of  the  languages  of  Southern  and  West- 
ern Europe,  of  some  African  tongues,  and  \\\c  various  dia- 
lects of  the  two  Tartaries.f  Latin  and  Greek  are  also 
reckoned  among  its  derivatives.  J 


*  To^i  KaaatTEpoio  yeve6?.ij 
^A^VEtot  vaiovaiv  ayavoi  naidec  'IjSijpuv. 

Dionysius,  Perierg.,  v.  563. 
f  La  languc  celticiue  dans  son  sens  le  plus  extcndu,  est  la  languc  que 
parltirent  Ics  premiers  habitans  de  I'Europe,  depuis  les  rives  de  I'lIoUos- 
pont  ct  de  la  Mer  Kgoe,  jusques  i\  celle  «lo  I'ocoan  ;  dcpuis  Ic  cap  Sigec 
aux  portcs  de  Troie,  jusques  au  cap  de  Finisterrc  in  Portugal,  ou  jusquca 
en  Ireland. — (tKHklin,  Disc.  Prelim.,  art.  2. 

X  Lingua  Hetrusca,  Phrygia,  Celtica,  affines  sunt  omnes ;  ex  uno 
fontc  derivatw.  Nee  Giwca  longe  distat ;  Japhctica)  sunt  omnes  ergo,  et 
ijisa  Latina. — Stiernhelm. 

Spauiards?  What  was  their  ancient  name?  For  what  were  they  renowned  ? 
What  people  carried  on  an  cxtcnRive  trade  with  the  Knpsiteridos?  What  inci- 
dent is  related  in  illustration  of  the  valne  which  the  Phoenicians  set  upon  their 
exclusive  trade  with  these  islands  ?  By  whom,  at  last,  were  the  Kassitcrldea 
peopled  ¥ 

§  18.  From  what  docs  the  Celtic  language  derive  Us  name  ?    From  what  stock 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  englIsh  langijage.  3t 

Celtic  was  itself  an  offshoot  from  the  Hebrew  or  Phoeni- 
cian tongue;  thus  etymology,  as  well  as  profane  history, 
confirms  the  account  given  by  Moses  of  the  peopling  of  the 
earth  from  one  parent  family.  A  marked  resemblance  may 
still  be  observed  between  the  Hebrew  and  "Welsh  of  the 
present  day ;  and  we  can  only  wonder  that  thirty  centuries, 
involving  so  many  political  revolutions,  should  not  have 
produced  a  greater  difference  between  them. 

As  we  have  said  that  the  original  British  was  derived  from 
the  same  stock  as  the  language  of  Greece  and  that  of  Rome, 
it  may  seem  strange  that  there  was  not  sufficient  resem- 
blance between  it  and  the  latter  to  be  observed  and  recorded 
by  Cagsar  when  he  invaded  the  island.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  centuries  had  elapsed  from  the  time  of 
their  formation;  that  all  languages  at  that  early  day,  being 
si:)oken  rather  than  written,  were  particularly  liable  to  mu- 
tations ;  and  that,  after  separating  from  each  other,  all  in- 
tercourse between  the  kindred  tribes  ceased,  and  their  dia- 
lects must  therefore  in  a  great  measure  have  lost  their  affinity. 
The  radicals  common  to  both  must  have  assumed  distinct 
forms,  and  the  new  objects  and  inventions  peculiar  to  each 
must  have  originated  new  terms  to  which  the  others  were 
strangers.  As  they  did  not  advance  towards  civilization 
with  the  same  degree  of  rapidity,  so  their  respective  lan- 
guages could  not  have  been  equally  copious  or  polished;  for 
words  multiply  with  ideas  and  successive  advances  in  art 
and  science.  In  process  of  time,  these  causes,  added  to  the 
difference  in  the  natural  features  of  their  respective  coun- 
tries and  in  the  objects  with  which  they  were  surroundcdj 
must  have  obscured  the  common  roots,  and  produced  such 


did  the  Ke'AToi  spriDg?  By  whom  was  the  name  afteinvards  assumed?  What 
tongues  have  been  formed  from  the  Celtic?  From  Avhat  language  was  Celtic  r.n 
ofl'shoot  ?    What  resemblance  confirms  this  fact  ? 

What  connection  had  Greek  and  Latin  with  the  original  language  of  Britain? 
How,  then,  is  it  to  be  explained  that  there  was  not  sufficient  resemblance  between 
them  to  be  observed  and  recorded  by  CfEsar?  What  changes  must  have  been 
made,  and  why?    Wliat  natural  circumstances  produce  changes  in  the  language 


38  OKIGIN  OF  THE  ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

accessions  of  new  words  to  each  dialect  as  to  make  them 
entirely  distinct  from  one  another. 

Even  the  temperature,  soil,  and  atmosphere  of  a  country,  have  a  great 
effect  on  its  language.  "  It  is  commonly  observed,"  says  Rowland,  the 
learned  author  of  "  Mona  Antiqua  Ilcstorata",  "that  different  climateg, 
airs,  and  aliments,  do  very  much  diversify  the  tone  of  the  parts  and  mus- 
cles of  human  bodies ;  on  some  of  which  the  modulation  of  the  voice 
much  depends.  The  peculiar  moisture  of  one  country,  the  drought  of 
another  (other  causes  from  food,  &c.,  concurring),  extend  or  contract, 
swell  or  attenuate,  the  organs  of  the  voice,  so  that  the  sound  made  there- 
by is  rendered  cither  shrill  or  hoarse,  soft  or  hard,  plain  or  lisping,  in 
proportion  to  that  contraction  or  extension.  And  hence  it  is,  that  the 
C'hincse  and  Tartars  have  some  sounds  in  their  language  that  Europeans 
can  scarcely  imitate." 

It  is  probable  that  the  Celtic  spoken  in  Britain  and  Gaul 
before  their  conquest  by  the  Romans  bore  a  much  closer  re- 
semblance to  the  parent  tongue  than  the  dialects  that  pre- 
vailed in  the  south-east  of  Europe ;  for  the  obvious  reason 
that  the  former  countries  had  paid  less  attention  to  litera- 
ture and  science,  enjoyed  fewer  opportunities  of  intercourse 
with  other  nations,  and  suffered  less  from  invasion,  war,  and 
conquest. 

§  19.  Brandies  of  Celtic. — Of  the  Celtic  stock  there  are 
two  branches ;  the  British  or  Cambrian,  and  Gaelic  or  Erse. 
The  former  was  the  dialect  that  anciently  prevailed  ui  Brit- 
am  and  Gaul ;  embracing  the  Cornish,  spoken  till  a  recent 
period  in  Cornwall,  and  the  Armorican  of  the  French  prov- 
ince of  Bretagnc.  It  is  represented  by  the  Welsh  of  the 
present  day.  To  the  second  or  Erse  branch  belong  the  an- 
cient and  present  Irish,  the  GaeUc  of  the  Highlands  of  Scot- 
land, and  the  Manks  of  the  Isle  of  Man. 

of  a  country?  What  docs  Rowland  eay  in  this  connection  ?  Which  resembled 
moro  cloBcly  tho  parent  tongue,  the  Celtic  of  Gaul  and  Britain,  or  that  of  South- 
eastern Europe  ?    What  reason  is  assigned  for  this  ? 

§  19.  How  many  branches  are  there  of  tho  Celtic  stocV:  ?  Name  thcia.  Wlicre 
did  tho  British  or  Carabrlon  prevail  ?  What  diali'cts  did  it  embrace  ?  By  what 
is  it  ropresontod  at  tho  present  dny  ?  What  limcruagos  bclonpr  to  the  Erse  branch  ? 
To  which  branch  does  the  lan{::ua;:o  of  Brittany  belon.<,'T  ^\^lat  is  it  generally 
tailed?    What  ton-rne  does  Armorican  i-escmblo?    What  does  this  prove ?    Re- 


OEIGIN   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  39 

In  the  first  class  is  placed,  as  we  have  seen,  the  language  of  Brctagne 
or  Brittany,  on  the  north-west  coast  of  France,  generally  called  Armori- 
can.  An  astonishing  resemblance  exists  between  this  tongue  and  Welsh, 
which  proves  them  to  have  had  a  common  origin  and  to  have  suffered 
very  few  subsequent  modifications.  So  similar  are  they  that  when  a 
Welsh  regiment  passed  through  Brittany  some  years  since,  after  the  con- 
quest of  Bellisle,  they  could  converse  with  the  inhabitants  and  were  read- 
ily understood  by  them.  When  and  how  this  district  was  settled  is  not 
known ;  but  the  inhabitants  are  manifestly  of  British,  and  therefore  pri- 
marily of  Celtic,  origin.  Some  suppose  that  a  body  of  British  were 
driven  by  the  Saxons  across  the  Strait  of  Dover  and  settled  on  the  French 
coast ;  others  give  credit  to  a  tradition  which  prevails  among  the  Armor- 
icans,  that  they  are  descended  from  some  British  soldiers  who  were 
summoned  to  Italy  as  auxiliaries  to  the  Eoman  army,  and  who,  on  their 
return,  seized  on  this  district  for  a  home  in  consequence  of  having  learned 
that  the  Saxons  had  become  masters  of  their  native  land. 

§  20.  Peculiarities  of  Celtic, — Of  the  ancient  Celtic  we 
can  form  a  tolerably  correct  idea  by  examining  the  modern 
Welsh  and  Irish.     Its  pecuharities  seem  to  have  been, 
I.  A  lack  of  inflection  in  its  nouns ;  that  is,  they  did  not 
undergo  any  change  of  termination  to  indicate  a  change 
of  case.     The  modern  Irish  has  a  pecuhar  form  for  the 
dative  plural ;  but  with  this  exception  there  is  no  change 
in  the  terminations  of  nouns  either  in  Irish,  Welsh,  or 
Armorican. 
II.  A  system  of  initial  mutations,  by.  which  the  noun  alters 
its  first  letter  or  receives  a  prefix,  according  to  its  rela- 
tion to  other  words  in  the  sentence. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  we  are  now  speaking  of  the 
original  language  of ''Britain,  and  not  of  the  English  of  the 
present  day.     The  formation  of  the  latter  was  the  work  of  a 
later  date.     Yet  it  contains  some  traces  of  the  old  Celtic,  in- 
late  an  incident  illustrative  of  the  resemljlanco  between  Welsh  and  Armorican. 
When  and  how  was  Brittany  settled  ?    How  do  some  account  for  its  settlement  ? 
What  tradition  prevails  among  the  Armoricans  on  the  subject  ? 

§  20.  How  may  we  foi-m  an  idea  of  the  ancient  Celtic  ?  What  peculiarity  be- 
longed to  its  nouns  ?  How  do  modem  Irish,  Welsh,  and  Armorican,  agree  with 
ancient  Celtic  in  this  particular?  How  was  the  relation  between  the  noun  and 
»ther  words  in  the  sentence  indicated? 


40  ORIGIN   OF   Thfe   JENGLIStt   LANGtJAOE. 

troduced  either  directly  from  the  remains  of  that  language, 
still  preserved  in  their  greatest  purity  in  the  British  Isles, 
or  at  second-hand  from  the  Norman  French  or  some  other 
derivative  from  the  same  stockr 

§21.  Period  of  Moman  Supremacy. — Britain  was  sul>- 
jugated  by  the  Romans  about  50  b.  c,  and  remained  in  pos- 
session of  its  conquerors  for  four  centuries.  It  was  an  inva- 
riable point  of  policy  with  the  Romans  to  introduce  their 
own  language  into  conquered  states,  as  the  most  effective 
means  of  removing  their  prejudices  and  reconciling  them  to 
their  bondage.  Latin,  consequently,  supplanted  a  number  of 
aboriginal  tongues,  just  as  English  has  superseded  the  ver- 
naculars of  the  native  Indians  of  America.  In  some  coun- 
tries, where  a  war  of  extermination  was  carried  on,  this 
change  was  immediate ;  in  others,  it  was  more  gradual.  The 
Celtic  of  Britain,  however,  does  not  seem  to  have  received 
much  modification  during  the  period  of  Roman  supremacy. 
Our  language  has,  it  is  true,  many  derivatives  from  the 
Latin ;  but  these  came  through  the  medium  of  the  Norman 
French,  and  were  not  introduced  in  the  days  of  Caesar  or  his 
immediate  successors.  Though  numerous  Roman  garrisons 
wore  stationed  in  the  island,  and  though  many  of  the  Brit- 
ish youth  were  drafted  into  the  annies  of  the  Empire,  while 
others  were  sent  to  Rome  for  their  education,  yet,  either 
from  their  inaptness  at  learning  or  their  aversion  to  those 
who  had  deprived  them  of  liberty,  the  mass  of  the  people 
continued  firm  in  their  attachment  to  their  ancient  language 
and  in  its  exclusive  use.  Many,  however,  of  the  higher 
classes  became  accpiainted  with  Latin,  and  through  their 
means  some  words  were  introduced  fix)m  it  which  arc  still 


Is  Celtic,  the  original  laTifjiiajro  of  Britain,  thq  groundwork  of  onr  present 
Enprlish  ?    Wliat  connection  is  there  between  them  ? 

§21.  At  what  date  (lid  the  lloinans  8uhjn?:nle  Britain?  How  Ion?  did  it  re- 
main in  their  poHscsslon  ?  What  policy  did  the  Iloniana  pursue  in  the  states  they 
conquered?  What  was  the  consequence ?  Does  the  Celtic  of  Britain  appear  to 
have  received  much  modification  during  the  period  of  Roman  enpremacy?  How, 
then,  are  wc  to  account  for  the  Latin  derivatives  in  our  language  ?  What  oppor- 
tunities did  the  British  youth  have  of  learning  tho  Romon  tongue?    "WTiydld 


ORIGIN   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  41 

found  in  modem  Welsh.  English,  also,  contains  a  few  terms 
introduced  from  the  language  of  the  Romans  at  this  period ; 
such  as  the  word  street^  from  the  Latin  strata  /  and  names 
of  places  ending  in  coln^  a  contraction  oi  colonia  (a  colony), 
and  in  cestei\  derived  from  castra  (a  camp).  Hence  the  ori- 
gin of  lAwcohi,  heicester,  Gloucester,  &c. 


LESSON    VII. 

ORIGIN   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE    (cONTINUEd). 

§22.  The  Saxon  Conquest. — In  this  state  of  compara- 
tive purity  the  language  of  the  British  Celts  remained  until 
the  beginning  of  the  5th  century.  About  this  time,  the  whole 
of  Southern  Europe  began  to  be  overrun  by  Goths,  Huns,  and 
other  Northern  barbarians ;  who,  allured  by  the  advantages 
of  a  milder  climate  and  more  productive  soil,  emigrated  from 
what  was  then  called  Scandinavia,  answering  to  our  modern 
Norway  and  Sweden,  and  wrested  province  after  province 
from  the  Roman  Empire.  Tlieir  conquest  was  so  complete  as 
to  effect  a  radical  change  in  the  customs,  laws,  and  of  course 
dialects,  of  the  districts  they  subjugated.  The  languages 
spoken  by  the  Northern  tribes  were  mostly  of  a  common  ori- 
gin, and  belonged  to  the  great  Gothic  stock ;  yet,  though 
resembling  each  other  in  their  main  features,  they  were  dis- 
tinguished by  many  minor  points  of  difference.  The  Huns  and 
Lombards,  overrunning  Italy,  soon  corrupted  the  Latin  lan- 
guage and  originated  the  modern  Italian.  The  Franks  and 
Normans,  grafting  their  vernacular  on  the  Latin-Celtic  of 

they  not  embrace  these  opportunities  ?  What  class  remained  firmest  In  their  at- 
tachment to  their  ancient  language  ?  Through  what  class  were  a  few  Latin  words 
introduced  at  this  early  period  ?  Give  soma  Latin  derivatives  of  this  date,  with 
the  words  from  which  they  were  formed. 

§22.  How  long  did  the  Celtic  of  Britain  remain  comparatively  pure  ?  Aboiu 
this  time,  what  incursions  began  to  bo  made  in  Southern  Europe  ?  Whence  did 
the  Northern  barbarians  come  ?  What  was  the  result  of  their  conquests  ?  To 
what  stock  did  their  language  belong  ?  Which  of  these  tribes  overran  Italy  ?  What 
language  originated  in  their  corruptions  of  Latin  ?   What  tribes  grafted  their  vei" 


4:2  OKIGIN  OF  THE  ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

Gaul,  produced  Norman  French.  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
arose  from  a  similar  combination  of  the  language  of  the  Visi- 
goths, with  the  half  Celtic  and  half  Roman  patois  of  the  Penin- 
sula, subsequently  modified  by  the  introduction  of  some  Ara- 
bic elements  during  the  supremacy  of  the  Moors  in  Spain. 

Nor  did  Britain  escape  invasion.  "While  the  attention  of 
Scandinavian  nations  was  directed  principally  towards  South- 
ern Europe,  several  German  tribes  fixed  their  eyes  on  this 
isolated  province  of  Rome ;  and,  either  allured  by  the  hope 
of  plunder,  or  induced  to  send  out  colonies  by  the  denseness 
of  their  population,  despatched  thither  successive  expeditions. 
Prior  to  this  period,  indeed,  German  colonies  of  greater  or  less 
size  had  been  planted  in  Britain ;  for  we  read  that  this  was  done 
by  the  Emperor  Antoninus,  at  the  close  of  the  war  with  the 
Marcomanni.  These  early  settlers,  however,  were  too  few  to 
effect  much  change  in  the  customs  of  the  inhabitants.  It  may 
have  been  through  these  colonists  that  their  kinsmen  on  the 
continent  obtained  a  knowledge  of  the  island,  and  were  in- 
duced to  emigrate  thither  in  such  numbers.  Other  accounts 
state  that  they  went  on  the  invitation  of  the  British  themselves, 
who  solicited  their  assistance  against  the  Picts,  a  fierce  race 
occupying  the  northern  part  of  the  island ;  and  that,  having 
succeeded  in  vanquishing  the  latter,  they  were  tempted  to  re- 
main by  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the  pleasantness  of  the 
climate.  However  this  may  be,  the  first  expedition  of  which 
we  have  any  authentic  account  was  led  by  Hengist  and  Horsa, 
and  effected  a  landing  on  the  shores  of  Kent,  a.  d.  449.  It 
^vas  in  this  county,  therefore,  that  the  original  British  was 
first  superseded  by  the  mother-tongue  of  om*  present  English. 


nacular  on  the  Latin-Celtic  of  Ganl  ?  What  tongue  was  thus  produced  ?  How  did 
Spanish  and  Portuijxiesc  arise  ?  "What  elements  were  enbscqncntly  introduced  ? 
To  what  part  of  Europe  was  the  attention  of  ScJindinavian  nations  principally 
(li  reeled  ?  What  tribes  fixed  tlieir  eyes  on  Britain  ?  What  induced  them  to  send  ex- 
peditions thither?  By  whom,  and  after  what  war,  had  German  colonies  been  pre- 
viously planted  in  Britain  ?  Had  thone  early  ecttlers  elTected  any  change  in  the 
cudtcmis  of  the  inhabitants  ?  How  did  the  Germans  come  to  send  expeditions  to 
Britain  In  the  fifth  century  ?  Why  did  they  remain  in  Britain  ?  Who  led  the  first 
expedition  ?    Where  did  they  effect  a  landing,  and  when  f   What  tradition  is  pre 


ORIGIN  OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  43 

Two  traditions  are  handed  down  with  respect  to  the  stratagem  by 
means  of  which  Hengist  procured  sufficient  land  for  his  Jfirst  settlement. 
Gcoifrey  of  Monmouth,  a  Welsh  historian  of  the  twelfth  century,  states 
that  he  purchased  for  a  nominal  sum  as  much  land  as  could  be  enclosed 
with  an  ox-hide ;  and  that  then,  having  cut  it  into  narrow  strips,  he  sur- 
rounded with  it  an  extent  of  ground  sufficient  for  the  erection  of  a  castle. 
This  is  a  famiUar  story,  found  in  the  traditions  of  various  nations.  The 
other  version  is  given  by  the  Saxons.  They  say  that  their  great  leader 
bought  from  the  inhabitants  a  lapful  of  earth  at  what  seemed  to  his 
companions  an  extravagant  price ;  but  that  he  proceeded  to  sow  this  soil 
over  a  large  tract,  and  then,  since  it  could  not  be  distinguished  from  the 
other  ground,  laid  claim  to  the  whole,  and  made  good  his  pretensions  by 
force  of  arms. 

A  second  expedition  from  the  north  of  Germany  followed 
in  the  year  477,  under  the  command  of  Ella.  This  chieftain 
established  himself  in  what  is  now  called  Sussex  (that  is, 
South  Saxony).  The  kingdoms  of  Wessex  (West  Saxony), 
lying  in  what  is  now  known  as  the  County  of  Hants,  and 
Essex  (East  Saxony),  were  next  settled  by  successive  expe- 
ditions, in  the  years  495  and  530  respectively.  After  this, 
large  bodies  of  Germans  were  constantly  arriving.  It  is  un- 
necessary to  trace  any  further  the  history  of  their  emigrations. 

As  soon  as  they  found  themselves  possessed  of  sufficient 
strength,  the  new-comers  formed  the  determination  of  seizing 
upon  the  whole  island,  or  at  least  all  those  parts  of  it  that 
were  specially  favored  by  Nature.  In  this  they  finally  suc< 
ceeded ;  and  the  original  inhabitants,  to  avoid  extermination, 
were  obliged  to  flee  to  the  mountains  of  Wales  and  Cornwall, 
where  they  maintained  their  independence  for  many  centuries, 
and  have  preserved  their  language,  with  but  little  alteration, 
to  the  present  day.  In  the  rest  of  the  island,  however,  a  radi- 
cal change  both  in  language  and  customs  immediately  took 
place.     There  was  no  engrafting  of  one  tongue  on  another, 

served  by  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  respecting  Hengist's  stratagem  for  procuring 
land  ?    Wliat  is  the  Saxon  account  ? 

In  what  year  did  a  second  expedition  follow  ?  Under  whose  command  ?  Where 
did  this  chieftain  establish  himself?  What  kingdoms  were  next  settled,  and  in 
what  years  ?  What  determination  did  the  new-comers  soon  form  ?  Did  they  suc- 
ceed in  carrying  it  through  ?  Whither  were  the  original  inhabitants  obliged  to  flee  1 


44  ORIGIN   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

as  was  the  case  in  Southern  Europe ;  but  an  immediate  su)> 
stitution  of  the  language  of  the  conquerors  for  that  of  the 
vanc[uished.  The  tongue  spoken  by  these  Gennan  invaders 
is  therefore  the  real  groundwork  of  our  language;  a  fact 
well  established  by  history,  as  well  as  by  the  etj-mological 
analogies  subsisting  between  English  and  the  various  dia- 
lects of  Gothic  origin. 

§  23.  The  Invaders. — By  w^hich  of  the  German  trilx^s  the 
expeditions  alluded  to  were  fitted  out,  was  fonnerly  a  subject 
of  doubt,  but  seems  now  to  be  satisfactorily  established.  The 
Saxons,  Angles,  and  Frisians,  appear  to  have  been  the  prin- 
cipal ones  concerned  in  them.  Of  these,  the  first  occupied  the 
valley  of  the  River  Weser,  their  territory,  as  far  as  we  can 
now  locate  it,  corresponding  with  the  Kingdom  of  Hanover, 
the  Duchy  of  Oldenburg,  and  part  of  Holstein.  They  were 
a  powerful  people,  and  constituted  the  chief  body  of  the  in- 
vaders. This  is  inferred  from  the  fact  that  the  ancient  Brit- 
ons knew  their  German  conquerors  by  no  other  name  than 
that  of  Saxons ;  and  still  further  because  this  is  the  appella- 
tion which  the  Welsh,  Armoricans,  and  Gffilic-Celts  univer- 
sally apply  to  the  English  of  the  present  day.  Yet,  though 
the  Saxon  element  originally  preponderated,  the  Angles  were 
evidently  strongly  represented ;  for  they  enjoy  the  distinction 
of  having  given  their  name  permanently  to  the  island,  Eng- 
land  being  notliing  more  than  a  cori-uption  of  Angleland. 

Who  these  Angles  were,  is  by  no  means  certain.  Tacitus 
and  Ptolemy  allude  to  them ;  the  former,  indefinitely,  in  con- 
nection with  other  tribes,  while  the  latter  locates  them  in 
the  central  part  of  the  valley  of  the  Elbe.  They  seem  at  one 
time  to  have  been  a  distinct  and  powerful  tribe,  and  were  jier- 
liaps  allied  by  birth  to  their  Saxon  neighbors.     Having  be- 


What  change  took  place  In  the  rest  of  the  ieland  f  What  tongne  is  the  real  groaod- 
work  of  our  lanj^nage  ?    How  is  this  fact  pstablished  ? 

$  23.  What  Gorman  tribos  seem  to  have  taken  tlic  principal  part  in  the  invasion 
of  Fritain  ?  Where  did  tlie  Saxons  live  ?  With  what  modem  countries  did  their 
territories  co'Tospond  ?  Whence  do  we  infer  that  the  Saxons  constituted  the  chief 
body  of  the  invaders  T   What  other  tribe  wae  strongly  represented  ?   Wliat  reason 


ORIGIN   OF   THE    ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  45 

come  reduced  in  number  by  war  or  some  other  calamity, 
they  were  incorporated  with  the  latter,  and  found  their  way 
to  Britain  along  with  them.  While  on  the  continent,  they 
were  far  outnumbered  by  the  Saxons,  and  played  so  unim- 
portant a  part  that  little  mention  is  made  of  them  in  his- 
tory :  the  influence  of  the  two  nations  in  Britain  was  more 
nearly  equal;  and  the  Angles  may  at  length  have  j^repon- 
derated  over  their  kinsmen  and  allies,  and  thus  succeeded  in 
givdng  name  to  their  new  habitation  and  its  language. 

The  Frisians  are  not  generally  thought  to  have  formed 
part  of  the  German  settlers  of  Britain ;  but  that  they  were 
concerned  in  one  or  more  of  the  expeditions  seems  probable 
from  the  following  considerations  : — 
I.  Occupying  the  whole  coast  from  the  Zuyder  Zee  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Elbe,  they  must  have  been  situated  be- 
tween the  Saxons  and  the  sea,  and  are  therefore  likely 
to  have  joined  the  latter  tribe,  to  a  greater  or  less  ex- 
tent, in  their  maritime  expeditions. 
IT.  The  historian  Procopius,  speaking  of  Britain,  expressly 
mentions  the  Frisians  as  composing  a  part  of  its  popu- 
lation.*    Hengist  himself  is  represented  as  a  Frisian 
by  some  authorities.     The   Saxon   Chronicle,  also,  al- 
ludes to  Frisians  in  Britain. 
III.  The  Frisian  language,  as  now  spoken  in  Friesland,  bears 
a  closer  resemblance  to  English  tlian  any  other  known 
tongue. 


*  BpiTTiav  6e  ti/v  vf/aov  Idvij  rpia  TrolvavdpuTtdraTa  exovoi,  (3a<ji?i,evQ 
re  elg  abrcjv  mdano  e(j>£aTJjKev,  bvd/iara  de  Kdrai  rdig  edveac  rovroig  'Ay. 
ylAot.  re  koI  *^ puaaoveq  koL  ol  ry  vr/aa  ojlccjvv/ioi  BpcTTuvsg. — Piiocopius, 

D.  G.  IV.  20. 


have  we  for  supposing  this  ?  What  early  historians  allude  to  the  Angles  ?  Wliere 
does  Ptolemy  locate  them  1  What  seems  to  have  been  their  early  history?  On 
the  continent,  how  did  they  compare  in  power  and  influence  with  the  Saxons  ? 
How,  in  Britain  ?  What  other  tribe  seems  to  have  taken  part  in  these  incursions  ? 
Explain  how  their  poi^itiou  renders  this  supposition  probable.  What  historian 
and  what  work  mention  Frisians  as  forming  part  of  the  population  of  Britain  ? 
What  warrior  is  by  some  represented  to  have  been  a  Frisian  ?    What  additional 


4:6  OEIGIN  OF  THE  ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

Dr.  Latham,  whose  researches  have  thrown  much  light  upon  this  sub. 
ject,  and  whose  "Hand-book  of  the  EngUsh  Language"  is  replete  with 
scholarship  and  learning,  thus  sums  up  the  whole  matter :  "  It  was  cer- 
tainly from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  and  probably  from  a  part  of  the  Frisian 
area,  that  Great  Britain  was  first  invaded." 

§  24.  The  Saxon  Language. — The  language  whicli  thus 
f>uddenly  superseded  the  Celtic  of  the  ancient  British  was, 
as  has  been  remarked,  an  oiFshoot  of  the  great  Gothic  stem, 
which  itself  dates  as  far  back  as  the  Celtic.  The  nations 
that  spoke  the  various  Gothic  dialects  lived  in  the  northern 
part  of  Europe,  having  probably  emigrated  at  an  early  date 
from  Southwestern  Asia,  or  been  driven  out  by  more  power- 
ful tribes.  Their  bards,  whose  business  it  was  to  recite  the 
exploits  of  their  heroes,  agree  in  assigning  to  their  race  an 
eastern  origin ;  and  Herodotus  mentions  the  Germans  among 
other  tribes  of  ancient  Persians.*  The  Gothic  stock  is  di- 
vided into  two  great  branches :  the  Scandinavian,  including 
the  dialects  of  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Iceland; 
and  the  Teutonic,  or  Germanic.  To  this  latter  division  An- 
glo-Saxon belongs. 

§  25.  Norse  or  Danish  Element — The  first  introduction 
of  a  foreign  element  into  the  pure  Saxon  of  England  was  oc- 
casioned by  the  invasion  of  the  Scandinavian  nations  during 
the  ninth  and  the  tenth  century.  The  pirates  who  effected 
the  conquest  of  the  island  are  generally  called  Danes ;  but 
the  Norwegians  seem  to  have  played  the  principal  part  in 
these  expeditions.     Their  supremacy  must  have  caused,  to  a 


*  'A2,Xoi  6^  Tlipacu  elal  oUe,  TlavOia?Mlot^  Ar^povatacoi,  Tepjuavio i. — 
Herodotus,  C7io,  125. 

erldonce  have  we  In  the  languacfo  now  spoken  in  Friesland  ?  What  does  Dr.  La- 
tham say  on  the  subject  ? 

§  34.  From  what  ^rent  stock  did  tlic  Saxon  Innguaijo  spring?  Where  did  the 
Gothic  dialects  prevail  at  this  time?  From  what  part  of  the  world  did  the  na- 
tions using  them  originally  migrate  ?  Wliat  evidence  have  we  of  this  ?  Into  how 
many  branches  is  the  Gothic  stock  divided  ?  What  are  they  ?  Wliat  dialects  are 
included  in  the  Scandinavian  branch  ?  To  which  division  does  Anglo-Saxon  be- 
long? 

§  25.  What  occasioned  tho  first  introduction  of  a  foreign  clement  into  the  pure 
Saxon  of  England?    Wiat  nam»  is  generally  giveu  to  tho  i)irato-conqueronif 


OKIGm   OF   THE   ENGLISn   LAITGUAGE.  47 

certain  extent,  a  temporary  admixture  of  foreign  terms.  To 
decide  what  words  we  owe  to  this  era  is  extremely  difficult, 
on  account  of  the  analogy  subsisting  between  the  Scandina- 
vian and  German  dialects,  both  of  which,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered, were  derived  from  the  same  Gothic  parent.  It  is  cer- 
tain, however,  that  very  few  Danish  terms  were  ultimately 
incorporated ;  as  the  island  suffered  a  change  of  masters, 
rather  than  of  peoj^le,  customs,  or  laws.  The  Norsemen  have 
left  in  our  language  but  little  trace  of  their  invasion ;  and 
this  chiefly  in  the  names  of  places  on  or  near  the  coast. 


LESSON    VIII. 

OEIGIir   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE  (cONTINFED). 

§  26.  First  Introduction  of  Norman  Frencli  Elemeiits, — 
Not  perceptibly  affected  by  the  invasions  of  the  Norsemen 
or  even  by  their  temporary  usurpation  of  the  throne,  Saxon 
continued  to  be  the  language  of  the  island  until  the  Norman 
Conquest,  1066  A.  d.  During  the  six  hundred  years  that 
elapsed  between  its  introduction  and  this  event,  it  underwent, 
indeed,  some  modifications  of  greater  or  less  moment ;  and 
these  are  particularly  noticeable  in  the  century  immediately 
preceding  the  battle  of  Hastings.  It  was  at  this  period  that 
the  first  importation  of  Norman  French  words  took  place, 
under  the  auspices  of  Edward  the  Confessor.  Educated  in 
France  and  prejudiced  in  favor  of  all  that  belonged  to  that 
country,  this  prince,  on  returning  to  England,  and  assuming 
the  thi'one,  surrounded  himself  with  Norman  favorites,  and 
sought  to  introduce  French  customs  into  his  court  and  French 
idioms  into  his  language ;  much  to  the  disgust  of  his  subjects, 

Wliat  nation  had  most  to  do  with  the  invasion  ?    What  effect  did  their  suprem- 
acy produce  on  the  language  ?   Were  many  new  terms  incorporated  ?   As  regards 
tlio  names  of  places,  where  have  they  left  the  principal  traces  of  their  invasion  ? 
What  renders  it  difficult  to  determine  the  words  introduced  by  the  Norsemen  ? 
§  2«.  How  long  did  Saxon,  in  comparative  purity,  continue  Xa)^%^^  language 


48  OEIGIN   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

whose  affections  he  estranged  by  this  injudicious  course.  In- 
considerable as  were  the  changes  thus  brought  about,  they 
served  to  pave  the  way  for  those  fundamental  modifications 
which  the  Norman  Conquest  was  destined  to  produce. 

§  27.  Norman  Conquest  and  Us  Effects. — William,  Duke 
of  Normandy,  invaded  England  1066  A.  d.,  and,  having  won 
the  battle  of  Hastings,  seated  himself  without  delay  upon 
the  throne.  Resolved  to  wean  the  j^eople  from  their  ancient 
institutions,  he  endeavored,  as  the  most  effective  means  of 
accomplishing  this  object,  to  make  them  forget  their  lan- 
guage. With  this  view,  he  ordered  that  in  all  schools 
throughout  the  kingdom  the  youth  should  be  instructed  in 
the  French  tongue ;  and  this  ordinance  was  generally  com- 
plied with,  and  remained  in  force  till  after  the  reign  of  Ed- 
w^ard  IIL  It  was  also  required  that  the  pupils  of  grammar- 
schools  should  translate  their  Latin  into  French,  and  that  all 
conversation  among  them  should  be  carried  on  in  one  of 
these  two  languages.  Anglo-Saxon  was  banished  from  the 
tribunals  of  the  land,  and  pleadings  were  required  to  be  in 
French ;  deeds  were  drawn  and  laws  compiled  in  the  same 
language ;  no  other  tongue  was  used  at  court ;  it  was  ex- 
clusively employed  in  fashionable  society ;  and  the  English 
nobles  themselves,  ashamed  of  their  own  country,  affected 
to  excel  in  this  foreign  dialect.  The  lower  classes,  however, 
at  first  vigorously  resisted  these  attempts;  and  for  fifty 
y«ars  all  that  was  done  towards  changing  the  language  was 
effected  by  the  hand  of  power.  Yet  in  spite  of  this  feeling 
on  the  part  of  the  people,  even  during  the  very  period  in 
question,  the  intercourse  necessarily  carried  on  with  the  Nor- 
mans introduced  not  a  few  of  their  terms  into  common  con- 


of  England  ¥    What  was  the  principal  modification  it  had  previously  undergone  ? 
Who  was  the  author  of  these  chanijeH  *    For  what  did  they  pave  the  way  ? 

§  37.  By  whom  was  En-jland  invaded  llKJO  a.  d.  ?  What  battle  decided  the  fato 
of  the  country  »  What  was  its  n^sult  ?  How  did  the  Conqueror  endeavor  to  alien- 
ate the  people  from  their  ancient  inntitutions?  In  what  were  tlie  youth  iu- 
Btructed  ?  What  was  made  the  language  of  the  courts  ?  By  wlmt  class  were 
tliese  attempts  rcBlsted  ?  Did  they  succeed  iu  keeping  their  veruacular  uualloyed  f 


OBIGIN   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  40 

versation.  Thus  undermined,  popular  prejudice  gradually 
became  less  violent.  The  superior  versatility  of  the  language 
of  their  conquerors  and  its  peculiar  adaptedness  to  poetry 
were  soon  acknowledged  by  the  educated.  The  treasures 
of  the  early  ballad  and  romantic  literature  of  Normandy  were 
eagerly  sought  for ;  and,  within  a  hundred  years  after  the 
Conquest,  we  find  the  people  as  willing  to  learn  the  Norman 
tongue,  and  engraft  its  beauties  on  their  own,  as  their  fa- 
thers had  been  opposed  to  speaking  or  even  hearing  it. 

This  willingness,  however,  extended  only  to  a  modifica- 
tion of  their  vernacular ;  the  determination  was  still  as  strong 
and  imanimous  as  ever  against  allowing  the  introduction  of 
Norman  French  at  the  expense  and  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
latter.  To  improve  its  constructions  and  enlarge  its  vocabu- 
lary would  be  to  increase  its  usefulness ;  and  for  these  pur- 
poses they  freely  drew  on  the  language  of  their  conquerors. 
But  the  latter  was  rendered  odious  by  too  many  unpleasant 
associations  to  allow  of  its  substitution  for  a  tongue  which  the 
use  of  centuries  had  rendered  sacred  in  their  eyes.  Of  effect- 
ing this,  the  power  of  William  and  his  successors  was  totally 
incapable.  The  people  carried  their  point ;  and  within  two 
hundred  years  these  very  kings  and  nobles  from  across  the 
channel  were  compelled  to  learn  the  Saxon,  at  first  so  much 
contemned,  now  converted  into  English  by  the  important 
changes  just  alluded  to,  which  commenced  as  early  as  the 
middle  of  the  twelfth  century.  In  1362,  the  new  language 
thus  formed  was  introduced  into  the  courts  and  allowed  to 
be  used  in  pleading ;  all  classes  of  society  spoke  it ;  poets 
employed  it  as  the  vehicle  of  their  choicest  thoughts ;  and 
English  literature  may  be  said  to  have  had  its  origin. 

How  were  Norman  words  gradually  introduced  ?  In  what  qualities  did  the  edu- 
cated Saxons  find  that  the  Norman  language  surpassed  their  own  ?  What  was 
the  state  of  feeling  among  the  Saxons  a  century  after  the  Conquest  ?  How  far 
did  this  willingness  extend  ?  For  what  purposes  did  they  draw  on  the  language 
of  their  conquerors  ?  Did  the  kings  or  the  people  carry  their  point  ?  Two  hun- 
dred years  after  the  Conquest,  what  do  we  find  ?  Into  what  was  Saxon  by  that 
time  converted  ?  In  1362  what  took  place  ?  In  what  localities  were  thesQ 
changes  soonest  effected  ? 

3 


50  OKIGIN   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

These  changes,  though  covering  in  the  kingdom  at  large  a  period  of 
two  hundred  years,  were  in  some  parts  much  sooner  effected.  The 
greater  the  number  and  influence  of  the  Norman  inhabitants  in  any 
given  locality,  the  sooner  did  Anglo-Saxon  prejudices  give  way  and  the 
distinctive  features  of  the  French  become  blended  with  those  of  the  ver- 
nacular. 

§  28.  Conversion  of  A^iglo- Saxon  into  English. — Marks 
of  the  successive  changes  to  which  allusion  has  been  made, 
are  evident  in  the  few  extant  writings  of  the  twelfth  and 
the  succeeding  century.  In  the  case  of  some  of  the  produc- 
tions of  this  transition  period,  critics  have  foimd  it  difficult 
to  decide  whether  they  should  be  classed  among  the  latest 
specimens  of  Saxon,  or  the  earliest  of  English,  literature, 
bearing,  as  they  d» ),  the  characteristics  of  each ;  they  have, 
therefore,  introduced  the  word  Semi-Saxon,  which  they  ap- 
ply to  all  -^vritings  between  1150  and  1250  a.  d.  Passing 
over  a  few  works  of  minor  importance,  the  Travels  of  Sir 
John  Mandeville,  \v^ritten  in  1356,  may  be  called  the  first 
English  book.  Wioliffe's  Translation  of  the  Bible  followed 
twenty-seven  years  afterwards,  and  did  much  towards  fixing 
the  unsettled  forms  cf  the  new  language. 

The  English  of  these  early  times,  however,  differs  much  from  that 
of  the  present  day.  Even  the  poetry  of  Chaucer,  who  wrote  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  fourteenth  centu'-y,  can  not  be  understood  without  the  aid  of  a 
glossary.  Our  language  has  not,  to  be  sure,  since  the  Norman  invasion 
suffered  any  shock  from  the  intermixture  of  conquerors,  and  their  dia- 
lects ;  but  its  appearance  is  much  changed,  in  consequence,  not  only  of 
manifold  simplifications  in  tlic  spelling,  but  also  of  the  disuse  of  many 
Saxon  terms  (one  fifth  of  those  current  in  Alfred's  time  being  now  obso- 
lete), and  the  continual  introduction  of  new  words  from  the  dead  lan- 
guages, as  -well  as  from  the  French,  Italian,  and  Spanish.  For  scientific 
terms  resort  has  generally  been  had  to  the  Greek ;  and,  as  new  discov- 
eries have  been  constantly  making  since  the  Middle  Ages,  the  additions 
from  this  source  have  been  consj  ierable.    Commerce  has  also  widely  ex- 

§  28.  In  what  writings  havo  wo  marks  of  tlicse  snccesslvc  changes  ?  What 
writings  arc  classed  as  Scmi-Saxon  ?  What  may  be  called  the  first  Enj^lish  book  ? 
When  was  it  written  ?  What  work  followed  twenty-seven  years  afterwards  *  How 
docs  this  early  Engllsli  comparr.^vith  that  of  the  present  day  ?  What  is  said  of 
Chaucer's  poetry  ?  Whence  arises  this  difference  ?  What  part  of  the  SJlxon  wor-'- 


OEIGIN   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  51 

tended ;  and  commodities  formerly  unknown  have  been  introduced  into 
common  use,  retaining  in  most  cases  their  foreign  names.  Thus  we  have 
obtained  the  words  camphor^  arsenic^  and  many  others.  The  changes  and 
additions  just  mentioned,  as  well  as  a  variety  of  modifications  which  are 
found  to  have  affected,  not  only  our  own,  but  also  every  other  modern 
tongue,  have  so  altered  the  appearance  of  the  later  English  that  a  close 
examination  is  necessary  to  convince  the  reader  of  its  identity  with  the 
language  of  Chaucer. 

§  29.   Changes  hy  wMch  Anglo-Saxon  was  converted 

into  English. — ^The  principal  changes  by  which  Anglo-Saxon 

was  converted  into  English,  were, 

I.  Modifications  and  contractions  in  the  spelling  of  words. 

II.  The  introduction  of  French  terms,  phrases,  and  idioms. 

III.  The  use  of  less  inversion  and  ellipsis,  especially  in 
poetry. 

IV.  The  omission  of  inflections  or  changes  in  the  termination 
of  the  noun,  and  substitution  of  prepositions  to  express 
its  relations  to  other  words.  This  last-mentioned  change 
is  the  only  one  of  sufficient  importance  to  authorize  us 
in  considering  the  new  derivative  as  an  independent 
tongue.  It  is  an  alteration  which  time  very  often  brings 
about ;  and  is,  perhaps,  to  be  attributed  rather  to  the 
natural  efforts  of  the  people  to  simplify  their  grammar, 
than  to  the  effects  of  the  Norman  Conquest  or  the  new 
dialect  it  introduced.  Observation  shows  that  this  ten- 
dency has  by  no  means  been  confined  to  English.  It 
seems  to  be  a  universal  principle,  that,  the  further  we 
go  back  in  the  history  of  a  given  language,  the  more 
terminational  changes  we  find  in  its  nouns  and  verbs, 
and  the  fewer  prepositions  and  auxiliaries. 

current  hi  Alfred's  time  are  now  obsolete  ?  Whence  have  we  obtained  most  of  our 
scientific  terms  ?  How  have  we  received  the  words  camphor^  arsenic^  and  many 
others  ?    What  is  said  of  the  effect  of  these  alterations  and  additions  ? 

§  29.  Mention  the  four  principal  changes  by  which  Anglo-Saxon  was  converted 
into  English.  Which  of  these  is  the  most  important?  How  is  it  often  brought 
about  ?  To  what  is  it  attributable  ?  Is  this  tendency  confined  to  the  English  lan- 
guage ?    The  further  we  go  back  in  the  history  of  a  tongue,  what  do  we  find  ? 


52  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

LESSON   IX. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  ENGUSH  LANGUAGE. 

§  30.  To  recapitulate  and  enlarge  on  what  has  been  said 
in  the  preceding  lesson,  it  appears  that  our  language,  as  it 
now  stands,  is  composed  of  the  following  elements : — 

1.  Saxon. — Of  over  one  hundred  thousand  words,  con- 
tained in  our  fullest  dictionaries,  nearly  half  are  from  this 
source ;  as  are,  also,  our  chief  peculiarities  of  construction 
and  idiom.  Some  of  these  it  may  be  interesting  to  particu- 
larize. The  inflection  of  our  pronouns ;  the  terminations  of 
the  possessive  case  and  plural  number,  as  well  as  of  the  second 
and  third  person  singular  of  verbs ;  the  syllables  er  and  est^ 
and  the  words  more  and  raost^  by  which  we  form  the  com- 
parative and  superlative  of  adjectives  and  adverbs ;  the  suf- 
fix ly  (derived  from  lilce)^  which  enters  into  the  formation  of 
a  large  proportion  of  our  adverbs, — all  these  are  derived 
from  the  Saxon.  As  to  the  words  we  have  received  from  it, 
they  are  those  which  occur  most  frequently  and  are  individu- 
ally of  the  greatest  importance :  such  as  the  articles  «,  aiiy 
the  /  all  our  pronouns ;  the  adjectives  oftenest  used,  espe- 
cially such  as  are  irregularly  compared ;  the  commonest  ad- 
verbs of  one  syllable,  how^  noic,  then^  and  the  like ;  nearly 
all  of  the  numerous  in-egular  verbs,  as  well  as  the  auxiliaries, 
have,  he,  shall,  loill,  &c. ;  and  the  prepositions  and  conjunc- 
tions, almost  without  exception. 

Irregular  nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs,  are  in  every  language  among 
rtic  oldest  words,  and  are  very  likely  to  be  those  most  used  in  common 
<;onversation  ;  to  which  fact  their  deviation  from  regularity  may  often  be 
xi'aced.    These,  as  we  have  seen,  our  Saxon  ancestors  gave  us ;  to  them, 

§  80.  How  many  wonU  are  containccl  in  our  ftillest  dictionaries  ?  Of  tbesie.  how 
muiy  are  Saxon  ?  What  tomiiniitions  have  wc  received  from  tliis  ponrce  ?  Which 
of  our  words  are  Saxon  ?  Mention  Pome  of  them.  What  is  said  of  the  Irrcj^ular 
nocns,  adjectives,  and  verbs  in  every  lan<!:iin;j:e  i  What  striking  objects  have  re- 
ceived Saxon  names  ?  Wlience  come  most  of  our  abstract  terms  ?  Whence,  tho 
wpociilcatious  uuder  thom  t    Give  examples.    What  rich  Aind  of  words  ia  almost 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.       53 

also,  we  owe  the  names  of  the  striking  objects  which  constantly  meet  our 
view,  of  sun  and  moon,  land  and  water,  hill  and  dale.  While,  moreover,  we 
borrow  from  the  Latin  or  French  most  of  our  abstract  terms,  the  specifi- 
cations classed  imder  them  are  for  the  most  part  Saxon.  Thus,  Latin 
supplies  us  with  the  general  term  color  ;  but  to  Saxon  we  are  indebted 
for  the  particular  varieties,  wMie  and  hlack,  blue  and  yellow,  red  and  brown : 
from  the  former  we  get  the  comprehensive  term  io  move  ;  from  the  latter, 
the  different  kinds  of  motion,  walking,  running,  leaping,  sjyringing,  gliding, 
creeping,  crawling,  &c.  Hence,  too,  the  rich  and  necessary  fund  of  words  by 
which  we  express  our  feelings  and  passions  as  well  as  the  relations  which 
call  them  forth.  These  emotions  the  Saxons  shared  with  all  others  of  the 
human  race,  and  the  words  which  they  employed  in  expressing  them  have 
come  down  to  us  almost  without  alteration.  To  this  class  belong  the 
words  love  and  hate,  hope  and  fear,  smile  and  tear,  sigh  and  groan,  weeping 
and  laughter,  father  and  mother,  man  and  wife,  son  and  daughter.  Our 
common  business  terms,  the  language  of  the  shop,  the  market,  and  the 
farm,  have  the  same  origin.  Saxon,  therefore,  besides  dictating  the  laws 
and  furnishing  the  particles  by  which  our  Avords  are  connected,  yields 
the  most  available  terms  for  expressing  the  feelings,  describing  the  ob- 
jects of  sense  and  imagination,  and  conveying  the  facts  of  every-day  life. 

2.  Norman  French. — From  the  time  of  the  Conquest 
till  the  days  of  Chaucer,  a  period  of  three  hundred  years, 
this  element  played  an  important  part  in  the  formation  of 
our  tongue.  First  introduced  by  royal  authority  as  the  lan- 
guage of  law,  chivalry,  and  feudalism.,  and  unwillingly  re- 
ceived by  the  masses,  it  finally  found  its  way  into  their  affec- 
tions, and  was  largely  drawn  upon  for  words  in  which  the 
Saxon  vocabulary  was  deficient.  From  this  source  it  is  esti- 
mated that  at  least  five  thousand  words  were  added.  Be- 
sides covering  the  abstractions  and  generalities  of  every-day 
life,  they  often  convey  slight  distinctions  and  delicate  shades 
of  thought.  We  find  them  particularly  useful,  when  we 
Avisli  to  express  disajDprobation  without  wounding  the  feel- 

cutirely  Saxon?  Mention  eome.  What  other  terms  have  the  same  origui  ?  V/hat 
portion,  then,  of  its  syntax  and  vocabulary  does  English  owe  to  Saxon  ? 

Between  what  periods  did  Norman  French  play  an  important  part  in  the  for- 
mation of  our  tongue?  How  was  it  first  Introduced  ?  In  process  of  time,  how 
was  it  received  by  the  people  ?  How  many  words  have  we  taken  from  this 
source  ?  What  do  they  convey  with  peculiar  accuracy  ?  When  do  wc  find  them 
particularly  useful  ?    How  is  this  expiaiued  ? 


54       ANALYSIS  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

ings  of  another.  Tlie  natural  courtesy  of  the  Normans  led 
to  the  creation  of  a  fund  of  words  applicable  to  this  purix)se, 
for  wliich  the  energetic  and  too  often  rough  expressions  of 
the  Saxons  were  totally  unsuited. 

3.  Modern  French. — From  this  offspring  of  the  ancient 
Norman  our  authors  have,  at  different  periods,  taken  many 
useful  words ;  which,  either  with  very  slight  changes  in  their 
spelling  or  without  any  modification  at  all,  have,  after  a 
time,  by  common  consent,  become  incorporated  into  the  lan- 
guage. A  taste  for  French  expressions  as  well  as  French 
opinions  has  from  time  to  time  prevailed  in  England,  and  of 
course  led  to  the  introduction  of  many  foreign  terms  from 
this  source;  whence,  also,  numerous  additions  have  been 
made  through  the  medium  of  trade,  many  fabrics  which  owe 
their  invention  to  the  artists  of  France  having  come  into 
general  use  and  retained  their  foreign  names. 

4.  Latin. — Under  this  head  must  be  classed  those  ele- 
ments which  have  come  directly  from  the  Latin,  and  not 
through  the  medium  of  any  other  tongue.  Between  the  two 
classes  it  is  not  always  easy  to  draw  a  dividing  line,  particu- 
larly in  the  case  of  the  later  derivatives.  The  earhest  addi- 
tions from  this  source  (if  we  except  proper  names  and  a  few 
military  terms,  introduced  into  the  original  vernacular  of 
Britain  during  the  period  of  Roman  supremacy,  and  thence 
received  and  naturalized  at  a  later  date  by  the  Saxons)  were 
ecclesiastical  words,  such  as  tnonk^  saint ^  cloister,  inass,  and 
the  like,  necessarily  employed  wherever  the  Church  of  Rome 
carried  its  doctrines,  institutions,  and  ritual.  Next  follow 
tlie  Latinisms  introduced  in  the  thirteenth  century,  at  which 
time  a  taste  for  classical  studies  began  to  revive  in  England 
as  well  as  elsewhere.     Thenceforth,  as  necessity  required, 

"What  is  Bald  of  the  additions  from  modern  Frcncli  ?  Through  what  medium 
have  they  mostly  been  received  ? 

Into  what  two  classes  are  the  Latin  elements  of  our  language  divided  f  Is  it 
easy  to  distinguish  between  them  ?  What  additions  were  made  from  this  source 
during  the  period  of  Roman  supremacy  ?  What  Latin  terms  were  next  intro- 
duced ?    Give  examples.    What  Latinisms  nest  followed  ?    Towards  the  close 


AJ^ALYSIS   OF  THE  ENGLISH   LAJSTGUAGE.  55 

occasional  additions  were  made  from  the  same  source,  espe- 
cially by  theological  and  scientific  writers;  until,  towards 
the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Johnson  and  his  imi- 
tators, having  coined  largely  from  Latin  roots  and  natural- 
ized a  variety  of  classical  idioms,  succeeded  in  making  their 
high-sounding  derivatives  fashionable,  at  the  expense  of  the 
less  pretending  Saxon. 

It  has  been  questioned  by  those  who  compare  the  simplicity  of  Addi- 
son with  the  pompousness  of  Hume  and  Gibbon,  whether  this  wholesale 
Latinizing  was  any  improvement  to  our  language  and  literature ;  if,  how- 
ever, it  resulted  in  no  other  advantage,  it  has  at  least  secured  us  an  array 
of  synonymes  (that  is,  words  that  have  the  same  or  a  similar  significa- 
tion) unequalled  by  those  of  any  other  modern  language. 

5.  Celtic. — Next  in  importance  are  the  Celtic  elements, 
some  of  which  were  introduced  into  our  language  at  or  shortly 
after  the  period  of  its  first  formation,  wliile  others  have  been 
added  in  modern  times,  either  by  antiquarians  or  in  conse- 
quence of  intercourse  with  the  Welsh  and  Irish.  As  exam- 
ples of  the  latter,  maybe  mentioned  the  words  tartan,  plaid, 
flannel,  &c.  The  former  class  may  be  arranged  under  two 
subdivisions : — 

I.  Those  elements  which  came  directly  from  the  Celtic  it- 
self; embracing  a  great  number  of  geographical  names, 
such  as  Thames,  Kent,  &c.,  as  well  as  a  variety  of  com- 
mon nouns  in  every-day  use,  among  which  are  hran, 
darn,  flaw,  gruel,  mop,  tackle,  &c. 
II.  Such  as  originated  in  the  Celtic,  yet  were  received  into 
English,  not  directly  from  that  tongue,  but  through  the 
medium  of  Latin  or  Norman  French,  into  which  they 
had  previously  found  their  way. 

of  the  eighteenth  century,  what  taste  hecaine  fashionable  ?  How  does  the  style 
of  Addison  compare  with  that  of  Hume  and  Gibhon  ?  What  question  has  been 
raised  with  regard  to  this  wholesale  Latinizing  ?  What  great  advantage  has  re- 
Eulted  from  it  ? 

What  elements  are  next  in  importance  ?  When  were  the  Celtic  additions  in- 
troduced? What  is  the  first  class  into  which  the  ancient  elements  are  divided? 
Give  examples.  What,  the  second?  How  have  Celtic  words  found  their  way 
into  English  in  modem  times  ? 


66  Al^ALYSiS  OF  TBt  £NGtl8H  LAKGtJAGE. 

6.  Greek. — To  this  language  we  are  indebted  largely  for 
scientific  terms,  Imt  little  or  none  for  words  of  every-day  life. 
The  elements  thus  derived  are  all  of  recent  addition.  If  we 
except  the  words  phenomenon^  criterion,  automaton,  and  a 
few  others,  they  have  all  l^een  introduced  within  the  last 
hundred  and  fifty  years.  New  discoveries  of  science  having 
rendered  an  enlargement  of  our  technical  nomenclature  ne- 
cessary, recourse  was  had  to  the  Greek  as  affording  the 
greatest  advantages  for  this  purpose.  Hence  our  numerous 
words  ending  in  logy  and  graphy,  and  their  derivatives. 

7.  Miscellaneous  Elements. — Under  this  head  fall  the 
few  isolated  words  added  from  time  to  time,  through  the 
medium  of  business,  or  as  occasion  has  required,  from  east- 
em  and  North  American  dialects,  or  the  modem  tongues  of 
Europe  not  before  alluded  to. 

Dr.  Latham,  in  his  "  Handbook  ",  p.  56,  furnishes  us  with  a  variety 
of  examples : — 

Italian,  virtuoso. 

•Russian,  Czar. 

Turkish,  coffee,  bashaw,  scmiitar. 

Arabic,  admiral,  assassin,  alchemy,  alcohol,  and  a  variety  of  words 
beginning  with  the  Arabian  article  al. 

Persian,  turban,  caravan. 

Hindoo,  calico,  chintz,  curry,  lac. 

Malay,  bantam,  gamboge,  rattan,  sago. 

Chinese,  nankeen,  tea,  and  its  varieties,  bohea,  hyson,  &c. 

N.  American  Indian,  squaw,  wigwam. 

§  31.  From  what  has  been  stated,  however,  with  regard 
to  the  numerical  proportion  of  the  elements  composing  our 
language,  no  correct  idea  can  be  formed  respecting  their  rela- 
tive importance.     Some  words,  for  instance  (and  this  is  the 

Wliat  terras  do  wc  owe  to  the  Greek  lanjrungre  ?  When  were  they  Introduced  ? 
Within  thie  period,  what  has  called  for  an  enlargement  of  our  ecicntiflc  voc^ibu- 
lary  ?    What  terminations  in  En-jrlish  indicate  Greek  origin  ? 

How  have  a  variety  of  niiscollaneouB  elements  crept  into  our  langnngc  ?  Give 
examples  from  the  Italian ;  Russian ;  Turkish ;  Arabic ;  Persian  ;  Hindoo  ;  Ma- 
lay ;  Chinese ;  North  American  Indian  dialects. 

831.  From  what  has  been  stated  with  regard  to  their  number,  can  a  correct 
idea  bo  formed  of  the  relative  importance  of  the  elements  that  compose  our  Ian- 


CHAKACTERISTICS   OF   THE   EKGLISH   LANGUAGE.        57 

case  with  many  of  our  Saxon  derivatives)  are  constantly  re- 
curring, while  the  use  of  others  is  rare  and  limited  to  certain 
styles  or  subjects.  To  determine  what  part  of  our  language, 
as  commonly  written,  is  really  Saxon,  various  passages  from 
the  authorized  version  of  the  Scriptures  and  from  standard 
writers  of  diiFerent  eras  have  been  analyzed.  The  result,  as 
given  in  Turner's  Anglo-Saxons,  shows  that,  when  the  words 
were  classified  under  the  languages  from  which  they  were 
respectively  derived,  more  than  four-fifths  of  the  whole  were 
found  to  be  of  Saxon  origin.  The  individual  passages  com- 
pared were  found  to  differ  widely  from  each  other  as  regards 
their  proportion  of  foreign  elements.  The  translators  of  the 
Bible  wrote  by  far  the  purest  Saxon,  only  -^  of  their  words 
being  derived  from  other  sources ;  of  Swift's  words,  |  are 
not  Saxon ;  of  Milton's,  ^ ;  of  Shakspeare's,  -J- ;  of  Spenser's, 
Addison's,  and  Thomson's,  about  -J ;  of  Johnson's,  |- ;  of 
Pope's  and  Hume's,  ^;  of  Gibbon's,  much  more  than  -J-. 


LESSON   X. 

CHARACTERISTICS   OF  THE   ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 

§  33.  Before  proceeding  to  consider  the  different  classes 
of  words,  and  the  parts  they  respectively  perform  in  a  sen- 
tence, we  may  with  advantage  look  at  our  language  as  a 
whole,  and  observe  its  leading  characteristics. 

Derived,  as  we  have  seen,  from  so  many  different  sources, 
each  of  which  has  contributed  some  of  its  own  peculiar  fea- 

guage  ?  Why  not  ?  To  arrive  at  a  knowledge  of  this,  what  has  been  done  ?  What 
proportion  of  all  the  words  employed  is  found  to  be  of  Saxon  origin  ?  Who  are 
ascertained  to  have  written  the  purest  Saxon  ?  What  proportion  of  their  words 
is  derived  from  other  sources  ?  Of  Swift's  words,  what  part  is  not  Saxon  ?  Of 
Milton's?  Shakspeare's?  Spenser's,  Addison's,  and  Thomson's ?  Johnson's? 
Pope's  and  Hume's  ?    Gibbon's  ? 

8  32.  What  follows  from  the  fact  that  English  has  been  derived  from  so  mm^ 


58        CUAJiAOTEEISTICS  OF  THE   ENGLISU  LANGUAGE. 

tures,  it  naturally  follows  that  English,  like  every  other  com- 
pounded language,  is  full  of  irregularities.  We  must  not  ex 
pcct  entire  consistency  in  its  parts,  or  that  complete  analogy 
of  structure  which  is  found  in  simpler  tongues  that  have  been 
built  on  but  one  foundation.  Our  words,  naturalized  from 
widely  different  dialects, "  straggle,"  as  Blair  says,  "  asunder 
from  each  other,  and  do  not  coalesce  so  naturally  in  the  struc- 
ture of  a  sentence  as  the  words  in  the  Greek  and  Roman 
tongues."  Our  orthography  is  anomalous ;  the  same  combi- 
nation of  letters  may  be  pronounced  in  half  a  dozen  different 
ways :  *  and  our  syntactical  constructions  are  so  arbitrary  that 
it  often  perplexes  the  best  grammarians  to  accoimt  for  them. 
We  have  introduced  foreign  idioms  and  modes  of  construc- 
tion ;  and  our  sentences  too  often  look  like  patchwork,  com- 
posed of  divers  pieces,  handsome  enough  in  themselves,  but 
of  such  different  colors  and  qualities  that  the  eye  can  not 
help  being  struck  with  the  variety  in  passing  from  one  to 
another. 

Composite  languages,  however,  have  advantages  as  well  as 
drawbacks.  The  very  variety  alluded  to  above  is  preferable 
to  sameness,  and  often  imparts  vivacity  to  what  might  other- 
wise seem  monotonous  and  dull.  Such  tongues,  moreover, 
are  generally  enriched  w4th  copious  vocabularies ;  and  partic- 
ularly is  this  true  of  English,  whose  abundance  of  historical, 
political,  moral,  and  philosophical  terms,  leaves  little  to  be 
desired  by  the  Avriter.  Nor  are  we  less  amply  provided 
with  distinct  and  i:)eculiar  poetical  terms.  Witli  us  poetry 
differs  from  prose,  not  only  in  having  a  certain  arrangement 


*  For  example,  ovgh  in  through^  ihoughy  congli^  tough,  lough,  hiccough^ 
plough. 

tlifferont  Bources  ?  What  must  wo  not  expect  ?  What  eaye  Blair  rcepectinj?  our 
words  ?  What  is  the  character  of  our  orthography  ?  Give  an  example.  What  is 
said  of  our  sentences  ? 

What  advantage,  on  the  other  hand,  do  composite  languaiGres  possess  ?  With 
what  arc  such  tongues  generally  enriched?  With  what  kind  of  terras  are  wa 
amply  provided  ?    In  English,  how  docs  poetry  diflcr  from  prose  ?    Whose  wrltf 


GHAEAOTEEISTICS  OF  THE  ENGLISH   LAl^GUAGE.        59 

of  syllables  and  feet,  but  in  the  very  words  that  compose  it ; 
so  much  so  that  the  writings  of  Ossian,  though  they  have 
neither  rhyme  nor  metre,  are  classed  by  many  among  poems. 
In  this  respect  we  enjoy  a  great  advantage  over  the  French, 
whose  poetry,  without  rhyme,  would  be  hardly  distinguish- 
able from  their  prose ;  and  with  whom,  as  a  consequence, 
blank  verse  is  never  attempted.  For  this  richness  we  are  in- 
debted to  the  fact  that  our  language,  originally  made  up  from 
several  others,  has  borrowed  from  them  all ;  and  thus  has 
suppHed  from  one  what  was  wanting  in  another,  and  even  in 
some  cases  appropriated  duplicate  tenns  and  expressions  to 
denote  the  same  thing.  These  are  of  great  use  to  the  writer 
in  every  department  of  composition,  enabling  hun  to  diver- 
sify his  style  and  avoid  unpleasant  repetitions. 

§  33.  Every  language  is  supposed  to  take,  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree,  its  predominant  tone  from  the  character  of  the 
people  that  speak  it.  Though  it  can  not,  of  course,  exactly 
represent  their  customs,  manners,  powers  of  mind,  and  hab- 
its of  thought,  yet  it  must  necessarily  be  in  some  measure, 
if  ever  so  little,  affected  by  their  national  characteristics,  ^he 
vivacity  of  the  French,  the  thoughtfulness  of  the  English, 
and  the  gravity  of  the  Spanish,  are  unmistakably  impressed 
on  their  respective  tongues. 

From  the  character  of  those  by  whom  our  language  was  originally 
formed,  and  from  whom  it  has  received  most  of  its  subsequent  additions 
and  modifications,  we  would  expect  to  find  it  distinguished  by  strength 
and  energy ;  and  this  is  the  case,  notwithstanding  the  numerous  small 
particles  and  auxiliary  verbs  which  we  are  constantly  obliged  to  employ, 
with  a  decidedly  weakening  effect.  Though  our  constructions  are  by  no 
means  compact,  and  our  thoughts  are  diluted  with  a  superabundance  of 
words,  yet,  in  spite  of  these  disadvantages,  since  it  abounds  in  terms 

ings  prove  this  ?  What  ie  said  of  French  in  this  respect  ?  What  liind  of  verse 
is,  therefore,  never  attempted  in  that  language?  To  what  fact  is  English  in' 
debted  for  this  richness  ?    How  is  this  quality  of  use  to  the  writer  ? 

§  33.  From  what  does  every  language  take  its  predominant  tone  ?  What  is  the 
characteristic  of  the  French  and  their  tongue?  What,  of  the  English  ?  What,  of  the 
Spanish?  Judging  from  the  character  of  the  formers  of  our  language,  by  what 
>ould  we  expect  to  find  English  distinguished  ?    Is  this  the  case  ?   What  words> 


60        CllAEACTERISTlCS  OF  THE  ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 

adapted  to  the  expression  of  the  strongest  emotions,  and  presents  ftupc 
rior  facilities  for  forming  compounds,  and  thereby  briefly  representing 
complex  ideas,  our  language  is  admitted  by  all  nations  to  be  eminently 
nervous  and  energetic. 

Flexibility,  or  susceptibility  of  accommodation  to  diflPerent 
styles  and  tastes,  so  as  to  be  either  grave  or  gay,  forcible  or 
tender,  simple  or  imposing,  as  occasion  may  require,  is  one 
of  the  most  important  qualities  that  a  language  can  possess, 
as  regards  both  writing  and  speaking.  To  insure  flexibility, 
three  characteristics  are  essential ;  copiousness,  capacity  for 
changes  of  construction  and  arrangement,  and  strength  and 
beauty  as  regards  individual  words.  The  first  two  of  these 
(jualities  we  have  seen  that  English  possesses  in  a  high  de- 
gree ;  in  the  last  it  is  not  deficient.  While,  therefore,  it  is 
inferior  in  flexibility  to  Latin  and  Greek,  and  of  modem  lan- 
guages perhaps  to  Italian,  it  is  still  capable  of  being  used 
with  success  in  any  style ;  as  must  be  apparent  to  all  who 
examine  the  mastei'pieces  which  our  literature  has  produced 
in  the  various  departments  of  prose  and  jjoetry. 

It  has  been  said  above  that  our  tongue  is  not  deficient  in 
harmony ;  and  this  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  it  is  capable  of 
being  formed  into  poetry  without  the  aid  of  rhjmie.  Vowel 
sounds  abound,  and  jolease  the  ear  with  their  variety.  The 
frequent  recurrence  of  the  liissing  consonant  s,  however,  has  an 
unpleasant  effect,  which  we  have  only  partially  removed  by 
assigning  to  that  letter,  in  certain  ]wsitions,  tlie  sound  of  2?, 
as  in  is,  these,  ears,  loves,  resolves,  &c  The  melody  of  our 
periods  is  also  materially  affected  by  our  tendency  to  throw  the 
accent  of  polysyllables  back  towards  the  beginning ;  to  which 
tendency  we  are  indebted  for  such  awkward  words  as  tern- 


however,  have  a  decidedly  weakening  effect  ?  What  Is  eald  of  onr  constnictlons  f 
How  are  our  thoughls  diluted  ?  Notwithstanding  this,  what  is  the  general  char- 
actor  of  our  lanjj:ua!j:c  ?    To  wlmt  features  docs  it  owe  thie  cliaracter  ? 

What  is  one  of  tlic  mopt  important  qualities  a  language  can  posseps  ?  Enunicp 
ate  the  characteristics  essential  to  noxibillty?  IIow  does  English  rank  as  re- 
gards these  three  essentials?  IIow  does  it  compare  In  flexibility  with  Latui, 
Greek,  and  Italian  ?    What  proves  its  adaptation  to  aU  styles  f 


PARTS  OF   SPEECH.  61 

porarily,  mischievously^  mercenariness^  mlserahleness,  and 
many  others  similarly  discordant. 

Whatever  may  be  said  of  the  English  language  in  other 
respects,  in  simplicity  it  undoubtedly  surpasses  the  rest  of 
European  tongues.  It  is  free  from  intricacies  of  case,  de- 
clension, mood,  and  tense.  Its  words  are  subject  to  but  few 
terminational  changes.  Its  substantives  have  no  distinctions 
of  gender  except  what  nature  has  made.  Its  adjectives  ad- 
mit of  such  changes  only  as  are  necessary  to  denote  the  de- 
grees of  comparison.  Its  verbs,  instead  of  running  through 
all  the  varieties  of  ancient  conjugation,  suffer  few  changes. 
With  the  help  of  prepositions  and  auxiliaries,  all  possible 
relations  are  expressed,  while  the  words  for  the  most  part 
retain  their  forms  unchanged.  We  lose  from  this,  no  doubt, 
in  brevity  and  strength ;  but  we  gain  vastly  in  simplicity. 
The  arrangement  of  our  words  is,  in  consequence,  less  diffi- 
cult, and  our  sentences  are  more  readily  understood.  The 
rules  of  our  syntax  are  exceedingly  simple,  and  the  acquisi- 
tion of  our  language  is  easy  in  proportion. 


LESSON    XI. 

PARTS      OF      SPEECH. 

§  34.  Having  traced  the  history  of  our  language,  con- 
sidered the  sources  from  which  it  is  derived,  and  noted  it? 
chief  characteristics,  we  shall  now  proceed  to  treat  of  its 
words,  viewed  with  reference  to  the  respective  parts  they 

What  proves  that  En£;lish  is  uot  deficient  in  harmony  ?  Wliat  consonant  has 
an  unpleasant  sonnd?  How  haVc  we  attempted  to  remove  the  difiiciilty  ?  What 
tendency  in  accentuation  interferes  with  the  melody  of  periods?  Mention  some 
inharmonious  words  thus  accfentcd. 

In  what  does  English  surpass  all  other  European  totigues  ?  What  features  aro 
mentioned,  which  conduce  to  its  simplicity?  How  are  the  diflforcnt  relations  of 
nouns  and  verbs  expressed  ?  In  what  respects  do  we  lose  In  consequence  of  this  I 
In  what  do  we  gain  ? 


62  PARTS  OF   SrEECH. 

perform  in  a  sentence.  A  knowledge  of  grammar  being 
l^resupposed  in  the  pupil,  we  shall  here,  by  a  brief  sunmiaiy, 
merely  recall  to  his  mind  its  leading  principles,  with  such 
definitions  and  illustrations  only  as  are  absolutely  essential 
to  the  proper  imderstanding  of  the  succeeding  lessons. 

The  classes  into  which  words  are  divided  with  reference 
to  their  use  and  mutual  relations,  are  called  Parts  of  Speech. 
They  are  nine  in  number. 

I.  NOUNS,  or  names  of  things.  They  are  divided  into 
two  classes :  Coivimon  Nouns,  or  names  that  distinguish  one 
class  of  objects  from  another, — as,  man^  city^  river;  and 
Proper  Nouns,  or  names  that  distinguish  one^individual  of 
a  class  from  another, — as,  Moses,  BrooJclyii,  Rhine. 

The  term  Substantive  is  frequently  used  as  synonymous  with  noun. 
Besides  nouns,  it  embraces  whatever  may  be  used  as  such ;  that  is,  pro- 
nouns, verbs  in  the  infinitive,  and  clauses. 

n.  PRONOUNS,  or  words  that  may  be  used  instead  of 
nouns. 

They  arc  comprised  in  the  following  classes : — 

1.  Personal,  or  such  as  show  by  their  form  what  person  they  are ;  that 
is,  whether  they  represent  the  person  speaking,  the  person  spoken 
to,  or  the  object  spoken  of.  The  personals  are,  /,  </iow,  lie^  sJve^  it,  and 
their  compounds,  myself,  thyself,  Jiiniself  Jierself-  itself 

2.  Relatives,  or  such  as  relate  to  a  substantive  going  before,  called  the 
Antecedent.  The  relatives  arc,  loho,  which,  and  that.  What,  whatever, 
whoever,  and  whiclwver,  include  the  antecedent,  and  are  called  Com- 
pound Relatives. 

3.  Interrogatives,  or  such  as  are  used  to  ask  questions.  The  interroga- 
tives  are,  who,  which,  and  what. 


§  84.  Wliat  do  wo  mean  by  parte  of  speech  ?  IIow  many  are  there  ?  Which  is 
iho  first  ?  What  arc  nouns  ?  Into  what  classes  are  they  divided  ?  What  arc  com- 
mon nouns  ?  What  are  proper  nouns  ?  What  term  is  often  used  as  pynonymoiit* 
with  notin  f  What  else  besides  noans  are  included  under  tbo  general  head  of  pub- 
stantives  ? 

What  is  the  second  part  of  ppeech  ?  Wliat  are  pronouns  ?  Ennmcrate  the 
classes  into  which  they  nre  divided.  Define  the  term 2>ersonal pronoi(n.  Mention 
the  personals.  What  are  relative  pronoinis  ?  Enumerate  them.  What  are  inter- 
ropatives  ?  Mention  them.  What  is  meant  by  adjective  pronouns  ?  Mention  tbt 
principal  ones. 


PAETS   OF   SPEECH.  63 

4.  Adjectite  Pkonouns,  or  such  as  ou  some  occasions,  take  the  place  of 
substantives,  and  on  others  are  used  with  them,  like  adjectives.  Un- 
der this  head  fall  the  words,  ihis,  that,  each,  every,  either,  neither,  no, 
none,  any,  all,  such,  some,  both,  other,  another. 

III.  ARTICLES,  or  words  placced  before  other  words 
(usually  nouns)  to  show  whether  they  are  used  in  a  particular 
or  general  sense.  We  have  two  articles :  the,  called  Defi- 
nite, because  it  defines  or  points  out  a  particular  object ;  and 
an  or  «,  called  Indefinite. 

IV.  ADJECTIVES,  or  words  which  describe  or  limit 
substantives ;  as,  "  TliQjive  good  emperors  ". 

V.  VERBS,  or  words  that  affirm  an  action  or  state ;  as, 
"  He  is  sure  to  succeed.'''*  That  respecting  which  the  action 
or  state  is  primarily  affirmed  is  called  the  Subject  of  the 
verb ;  thus,  in  the  preceding  example,  he  is  the  subject  of  the 
verb  is. 

Verbs  are  divided  into  two  classes  :  Transitive,  or  such  as  affirm  an 
act  done  to  an  object ;  and  Intransitive,  or  such  as  affirm  a  state,  or  an 
act  not  done  to  an  object.  "  James  rmcfe  Latin",  "James  canread^\ 
"  James  is  asleep  " :  in  the  first  sentence  the  verb  is  transitive  ;  in  the 
last  two,  intransitive. 

To  show  the  relation  which  the  subject  bears  to  the  action  affirmed, 
transitive  verbs  have  two  distinct  forms,  called  Voices.  The  Active 
Voice  represents  the  subject  of  the  verb  as  acting ;  as,  "  Caesar  con- 
quered  Pompey."  The  Passive  Voice  represents  the  subject  of  the  verb 
as  acted  upon ;  as,  "  Pompey  was  conquered  by  Caesar." 

A  verb  is  said  to  be  Finite  when  it  is  limited  by  person  and  number. 
This  is  the  case  in  every  part  except  the  infinitive  mood  and  the  parti- 
ciples. 

By  the  Regimen  of  a  verb  or  preposition  is  meant  the  substantive  it 


What  is  the  third  part  of  speech  ?  What  are  articles  ?  Mention  them,  and 
give  their  names. 

What  is  the  fourth  part  of  speech  ?    What  are  adjectives  ?    Give  an  example. 

What  is  the  fifth  part  of  speech  ?  What  are  verbs  ?  What  is  meant  by  the 
eubject  of  a  verb  ?  Into  how  many  classes  are  verbs  divided  ?  What  are  they  ? 
What  are  transitive  verbs  ?  What,  intransitive  ?  Give  examples.  How  many 
voices  are  there  ?  What  are  they  called  ?  How  does  the  active  voice  represent 
the  subject  of  the  verb  ?  How  does  the  passive  represent  it  ?  When  is  a  verb  said 
to  be  finite  ?  What  is  meant  by  the  regimen  of  a  verb  or  preposition  ?  Give  ex- 
amples. 


G4  PARTS   OF   SPEECH. 

governs  with  all  the  limiting  words  belonging  thereto ;  as,  "  A  good  citi- 
zen obeys  Jm  country's  lawsy  "  The  age  of  miracles  is  past."  "  A  com- 
pany of  mcked  and  prof  iffcUe  men.'''' 

To  verbs  belong 

Participles,  or  words  which,  partaking  of  the  nature  of 
adjectives  and  verbs,  describe  a  substantive  by  assigning  to 
it  an  action  or  a  state.  Transitive  verbs  have  six  participles, 
three  in  the  active,  and  three  in  the  passive,  voice ;  as,  lomnrj^ 
lovedy  having  loved,  and  being  loved,  loved,  having  been 
loved.  Intransitive  verbs,  admitting  of  no  passive  voice,  have 
but  three  participles ;  as,  %calkmg,  walked,  having  walked. 

VI.  ADVERBS,  or  words  added  to  verbs,  participles,  ad- 
jectives, and  other  adverbs,  to  express  time,  place,  degree 
comparison,  manner,  &c. ;  as,  now,  here,  very,  so,  gracefully, 
Adverbs  of  manner  for  the  most  part  end  with  the  letters  ly, 
This  class  of  words  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  ad 
jectives,  which  also  express  manner  or  quality,  but  are  al 
ways  joined  to  substantives. 

VII.  CONJUNCTIONS,  used  to  connect  words,  senten- 
ces, and  parts  of  sentences.     The  most  common  ones  are, 
And,  or,  either,  because,  except, 
as,                   nor,                   neither,              since,                    whether, 
for,                  yet,                   than,                  though,                 lest, 

if,  but,  that,  although,  unless. 

VIII.  PREPOSITIONS,  which  show  the  relations  be- 
tween substantives  and  other  w  ords  in  a  sentence.  The  fol 
lowing  list  contains  the  principal : — 

About,  behind,  during,  out  of,  touching, 

above,  below,  except,  past,  towards, 

across,  beneath,  for,  regarding,      under, 

What  arc  participles  ?  IIow  many  participles  have  transitive  Verbs  ?  How 
many  have  intrant*itivcs  ?    Give  cxamjjlcs  of  eaclK 

What  arc  adverbs  ?  With  what  syllnblc  do  nclverbs  of  manner  pcnerally  end  ? 
From  what  must  adverbs  bo  carefully  diRtino;uiehctl  ?  What  is  the  difference  be- 
tween them  ? 

What  arc  conjunctions  ?    Mention  the  most  common  ones. 

What  arc  prepositions  ?    Enumerate  the  principal  onc». 


PAKTS   OF    SPEECH. 


65 


after, 

besides. 

against, 

between, 

along, 

betwixt. 

amid, 

beyond, 

among, 

but. 

around, 

by, 

at. 

concerning. 

before, 

down, 

from,  respecting,  underneath, 

in,  round,  until, 

into,  save,  unto, 

notwithstanding,  since,  up, 

of,  through,  upon, 

off,  throughout,  with, 

on,  till,  within, 

over,  to,  without. 

IX.  INTERJECTIONS,  or  words  used  to  denote  a  sud-. 
deu  emotion  of  the  mind;  as,  ah!  alas!  O!  oh!  fie! 
hist!  &c. 

Example. — The  following  sentence  contains  all  the  parts  of  speech, 
the  words  falhng  respectively  under  one  of  the  above  classes,  as  denoted 
by  the  numbers  placed  over  them : — 

7920683  4  1 

"  But  alas  !  he  soon  fell  before  the  malignant  tempter." 
§  35.  Of  these  parts  of  speech,  the  noun,  pronoun,  and 
verb,  alone  are  inflected ;  that  is,  undergo  changes  in  termi- 
nation to  denote  different  cases,  numbers,  persons,  &c. 

§  36.  That  we  may  determine  to  which  of  the  above 
classes  a  Avord  belongs,  we  must  examine  the  relations  it 
sustains  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence;  and,  as  in  different  con- 
nections the  same  word  often  performs  very  different  offices, 
it  follows  that  in  one  sentence  it  may  be  one  part  of  speech, 
and  in  another  another,  according  to  its  application.  The 
same  word  often  appears,  as 

I.  Noun  and  verb.  Example,  heat.  "The  heat  is 
great ; "  here,  being  the  name  of  something,  it  is  a  noun. 
"  Heat  the  plate ; "  in  this  case  it  expresses  an  action,  and 
is  therefore  a  verb. 

II.  Adjective  and  noun.     Example,  damp.     "A  damp 

What  are  interjections  ?    Give  examples. 

Give  a  sentence  containing  all  the  parts  of  speech,  and  mention  the  class  to 
which  tiie  words  respectively  belong. 

§  35.  Which  of  tliese  parts  of  speech  are  inflected  ?  What  is  the  meaning  of 
the  term  to  be  inflected? 

§  36.  How  are  we  to  determine  to  which  of  these  classes  a  word  belongs  ? 
How  may  the  same  word  be  used  in  diflferent  sentences  ?  As  what,  for  instance, 
does  the  word  heat  appear  ?  Give  examples,  and  state  what  part  of  speech  it  is 
in  each.    As  what  two  parts  of  speech  does  the  word  c?am;j  appear  ?  Give  exam- 


(jQ  PABTS  OP  SPEECU. 

cellar ; "  in  this  expression  it  describes  cellar,  and  is  conse- 
quently an  adjective.  "  Misfortune  casts  a  damp  over  the 
spirits ; "  here,  l^eing  the  name  of  something,  it  is  a  noun. 

IIL  Adjective  and  veri^.  Example,  dry.  "  A  dry  cli- 
mate."    "  Dry  your  cloak." 

IV.  Adverb  and  conjunction.  Example,  as.  "  As  bright 
as  the  sun."  The  first  as,  being  joined  to  the  adjective 
bright,  to  express  comparison,  is  an  adverb ;  the  second  as, 
connecting  parts  of  the  sentence,  is  a  conjunction. 

V.  Adverb  and  preposition.  Example,  up.  "  Look  up." 
"  Up  the  hill."  When  followed  by  a  noun  or  pronoun  as  its 
object,  it  is  a  preposition ;  when  not,  an  adverb. 

§  37.  Difficulty  is  often  experienced  in  parsing  the  words 
that  and  bnt. 

That,  according  to  its  use,  may  be  a  relative  pronoun,  an 
adjective  pronoun,  or  a  conjunction.  When  who  or  which  can 
be  used  in  its  place,  it  is  a  relative ;  "  He  that  {who)  has  a 
guilty  conscience  is  not  to  be  envied."  When  it  points  out 
a  particular  object,  it  is  an  adjective  pronoun ;  "  That  fact 
can  not  be  doubted."  When  it  connects  parts  of  a  sentence, 
it  is  a  conjunction ;  "  I  hope  that  you  may  succeed." 

But  is  employed  as  an  adverb,  a  preposition,  and  a  con- 
junction. When  only  can  be  used  in  its  stead,  it  is  an  ad- 
verb; ^^  J8ut  (only)  three  were  there."  When  equivalent 
to  except,  it  is  a  preposition ;  "  No  one  but  (except)  Napo- 
leon could  have  conceived  such  an  idea."  In  otlier  cases  it 
is  a  conjunction ;  "  Caesar  was  great  intellectually,  hut  not 
morally." 

pies.  To  what  classes  does  <?ry  belong?  Give  examples.  As  what  two  parts 
of  speech  docs  np  appear?  Under  what  circumstauces  is  it  a  preposition,  aud 
under  what  an  adverb  ? 

§  37.  As  what  three  parts  of  speech  do(»  the  word  that  appear  ?  How  can  wo 
determine  which  it  is?  Give  examples.  As  what  is  the  word  but  employed! 
Uow  can  wo  determine  what  part  of  speech  it  is  ? 


SENTENCES.  67 

ORAL    EXERCISE. 

Mention  what  part  of  speech  each  of  the  following  words 
is,  and  how  you  know  it  to  be  so : — 

1.  A  violent  storm  at  sea  is  often  succeeded  by  a  calm.  2.  Calm 
your  agitated  mind.  8.  How  calm,  how  t)eautiful,  comes  on  the  still 
hour  when  storms  are  gone !  4.  With  dulcet  songs  the  mothers  still 
their  babes.  5.  The  still  of  midnight  is  at  hand.  6.  Still  water  runs 
deep.  '7.  A  still  is  a  vessel  used  in  the  distillation  of  liquors.  8.  Still 
one  was  absent.  9.  My  cheeks  no  longer  did  their  color  boast.  10.  Fie ! 
color  not  a  glaring  falsehood  with  feigned  and  specious  excuses.  11.  A 
Httle  mind  often  dwells  in  a  great  body.  12.  Little  did  the  French  em- 
peror anticipate  the  overthrow  that  awaited  him  in  Russia.  13.  Man 
wants  but  little  here  below,  nor  wants  that  little  long.  14.  The  Dutch 
till  their  fields  with  such  care  that  the  whole  of  Holland  resembles  a 
highly  cultivated  garden.  15.  Occupy  till  I  come.  16.  It  is  no  worse 
to  rob  a  man's  till  than  to  despoil  him  of  his  fair  reputation  by  spread- 
ing slanderous  reports.  lY.  The  Arctic  adventurers  were  imbedded  in 
ice  till  the  ensuing  spring.  18.  Past  twelve  o'clock,  and  yet  the  hermit 
sighs.  19.  While  the  body  was  still  hanging  on  the  gallows,  the  queen 
and  her  train  rode  gayly  past.  20.  Past  time  never  returns.  21.  Spirit 
of  the  Past !  look  not  so  mournfully  at  me  with  thy  great  tearful  eyes. 
22.  For  me,  for  all.  Death  comes  aUke.  23.  Men  are  never  so  ridiculous 
for  the  qualities  they  have  as  for  those  they  affect  to  have.  24.  Fenelon, 
hearing  that  his  library  was  on  fire,  exclaimed,  "  Ah !  God  be  praised 
that  it  is  not  some  poor  man's  dwelHng ! "  25.  !N^o  man  should  think  so 
highly  of  himself  as  to  imagine  he  can  receive  but  little  light  from  books, 
nor  so  meanly  as  to  believe  he  can  discover  nothing  but  what  is  to  be 
learned  from  them. 


LESSON   XII. 

SENTENCES. 

§  38.  All  language  consists  of  sentences. 

A  Sentence  is  such  an  assemblage  of  words  as  makes 
complete  sense ;  as,  "  Truth  is  eternal." 

§  39.  Every  sentence  consists  of  two  parts,  Subject  and 
Predicate. 

The  Subject  is  that  respecting  which  something  is  af- 

§  38.  Of  what  does  all  language  consist  ?    What  is  a  sentence  ? 

S  39.  Into  what  is  every  sentence  divisible  ?    What  is  meant  by  the  Bubject? 


68  SENTENCES. 

firmed,  asked,  or  exclaimed,  or  to  which  a  command,  an  ex- 
hortation, or  an  entreaty  is  addressed.  In  the  above  exam- 
ple, truth  is  the  subject. 

The  Predicate  is  that  which  is  affirmed,  asked,  or  ex- 
claimed, respecting  the  subject ;  or  the  command,  exhorta- 
tion, or  entreaty  addressed  to  it.  In  the  above  example, 
the  words  is  eternal  constitute  the  predicate. 

The  subject  of  a  sentence  may  be  ascertained  by  putting  who  or  what 
before  the  leading  verb.  The  answer  to  the  question  thus  formed  will 
be  the  subject,  and  the  rest  of  the  sentence  the  predicate.  Thus : — 
"  Truth  is  eternal."  Wlmt  is  eternal  ?  Answer,  truth.  Truth  is  there- 
fore the  subject,  and  i»  eternal  the  predicate. 

In  imperative  sentences,  that  is,  such  as  express  a  command,  an  ex- 
hortation, an  entreaty,  or  permission,  the  subject  is  often  understood ; 
as,  "  Look  not  upon  the  wine  when  it  is  red."  Tliou  understood  is  the 
subject;  all  the  words  expressed  constitute  the  predicate. 

§  40.  There  are  two  kinds  of  subjects.  Grammatical  and 
Logical. 

The  Grammatical  Subject  is  the  name  of  the  person  or 
thing  respecting  which  the  affirmation  is  made,  the  question 
asked,  &c.,  without  any  limiting  terms.  It  usually  consists 
of  but  one  word,  and  is  nominative  to  the  leaduig  verb  in 
the  sentence. 

The  Logical  Subject  consists  of  the  name  of  the  person 
or  thing  respecting  which  the  affirmation  is  made,  the  ques- 
tion asked,  &c.,  together  with  all  the  words  that  limit  or 
describe  it. 

"  The  worst  kind  of  lie  is  a  half  truth."  Kind  is  the  grammatical 
subject ;  the  worst  kind  of  lie  is  the  logical  subject ;  is  a  half  truth  is  the 
predicate. 

When  there  are  no  limiting  words,  the  logical  subject  corresponds 
with  the  grammatical.  Thus  in  the  sentence,  "  Truth  is  eternal,"  truth 
is  both  the  grammatical  and  the  logical  subject 

What,  by  the  predicate?  How  may  the  subject  of  a  ecntencc  be  ascertained? 
What  is  naid  of  the  subject  of  imperative  sentences  ?    Give  an  example, 

§  40.  How  many  Ivinds  of  subjects  are  there?  What  are  thoy  called  ?  What 
is  the  grammatical  subject?  Of  how  many  words  docs  it  generally  consist? 
What  is  the  logical  subject  ?  Give  an  example  of  the  two  kinds  of  subjects.  lu 
what  caee  does  tho  logical  subject  correspond  with  the  grammatical  ? 


SENTENCES.  •  69 

§  41.  Some  sentences  are  susceptible  of  division  into  two 
or  more  leading  parts,  entirely  independent  of  each  other  in 
construction  and  having  distinct  subjects  and  predicates. 
Such  parts  are  called  Members.  The  following  sentence 
consists  of  two  members :  "  A  friend  exaggerates  a  man's 
virtues ;  an  enemy  magnifies  his  crimes." 

§  42.  Sentences  may  contain  Adjuncts,  Phrases,  and 
Clauses. 

An  Adjunct  consists  of  a  preposition  and  its  regimen;  as, 
"the  appearance  of  evil^'*  "the  blessings  of  a  kind  God"*"*, 

A  Phrase  is  a  combination  of  words  which  separately 
have  no  connection,  either  in  construction  or  sense,  with  other 
words  in  the  sentence,  but  which,  when  taken  together,  con- 
vey a  single  idea  and  may  be  construed  as  a  single  word. 
In  shorty  in  a  word^  oti  the  contrary/,  are  phrases. 

A  Clause  is  a  combination  of  words  for  the  most  part  in- 
dependent in  construction  of  other  words  in  the  sentence, 
and  by  themselves  incomplete  in  sense,  generally  introduced 
for  the  purpose  of  asserting  some  additional  circumstance 
respecting  the  leading  proposition. 

§  43.  The  clauses  in  most  common  use  are  eight  in  num- 
ber; viz..  Relative,  Participial,  Adverbial,  Vocative,  Adjec- 
tive, Appositional,  Causal,  and  Hypothetical. 

A  Relative  Clause  is  one  that  contains  a  relative  pro- 
noun; as,  "He  who  lives  to  nature  rarely  can  be  poor." 

A  Participial  Clause  is  one  that  contains  a  participle ;  as, 
^'Aioahened  hy  the  morning  sim,  the  birds  carol  their  songs 
of  gratitude." 

An  Adverbial  Clause  is  one  that  performs  the  office  of  an 
adverb,  generally  expressing  time,  place,  or  manner;  as, 
"There  is  a  pleasure  i?i  the  pathless  woods.'''' 

§  41.  Wliat  is  meant  by  the  members  of  a  sentence  ?  Form  a  sentence  contain- 
ing two  members. 

§  42.  What  may  sentences  contain  ?  What  is  an  adjunct  ?  Give  an  example. 
Wliat  is  a  phrase  ?    Give  examples.    What  is  a  clause  ? 

§  43.  Mention  the  clauses  in  most  common  ut=e.  Define  each  in  turn,  and  give 
an  example. 


70  SENTENCES. 

A  Vocative  Clause  is  one  that  contains  the  name  of  an 
object  addressed ;  as,  "  Go  to  the  ant,  thou  shiggard  !  " 

An  Adjective  Clause  is  one  that  contains  an  adjective  ; 
as,  ''^  Firm  in  his  attachments,  Lafayette  never  forgot  a 
friend." 

An  Appositional  Clause  is  one  that  contains  a  noun  or 
pronoun  in  apposition  with  some  other  substantive,  that  if?, 
which  refers  to  the  same  object  and  is  similarly  construed ; 
as,  "  Down  they  go,  the  brave  young  riders.''''  Miders,  re- 
ferring to  the  same  persons  and  being  in  the  same  construc- 
tion as  they,  is  in  apposition  with  it. 

A  Causal  Clause  is  one  that  indicates  the  motive  witli 
which,  or  the  end  for  which,  an  action  is  done ;  as,  "  To 
perfect  his  education,  he  went  to  France." 

A  Hjrpothetical  Clause  is  one  that  embodies  a  supposi- 
tion ;  as,  "  If  thou  hadst  been  here,  my  brother  had  not  died." 

§  44.  These  clauses,  when  used  by  themselves,  do  not 
make  complete  sense,  as  will  be  seen  by  making  the  trial  in 
the  sentences  given  above  as  examples.  They  are  therefore 
called  Dependent  Clauses. 

The  leading  clauses  on  which  they  depend,  make  sense 
by  themselves,  and  are  therefore  called  Independent  Clauses. 
Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  To  perfect  his  education,  he  went 
to  France,"  to  perfect  his  education  is  a  dependent,  he  tcent 
to  JP  ranee  an  independent,  clause. 

§  45.  As  regards  their  signification,  sentences  are  divided 
into  four  classes :  viz..  Declarative,  Interrogative,  Imperative, 
and  Exclamatory. 

A  Declarative  Sentence  is  one  that  declares  something ; 
as,  "  It  rains." 

Declarative  sentences  constitute  the  greater  part  of  written  language. 


§  44.  What  general  name  is  given  to  these  claoscs  ?  Why  ?  What  Is  meant  by 
an  independent  clause  ?  In  the  sentence,  "  To  perfect  his  education,  he  went  to 
France/'  pclect  the  dependent  and  the  indei)endont  clause. 

§  45.  As  regards  their  signiflcation,  how  arc  sentences  divided  ?  What  is  a  de- 
elarative  sentence  ?   Clivo  an  example.  What  Is  an  Interrogative  sentence  ?   Give 


SENTENCES.  71 

An  Interrogative  Sentence  is  one  that  asks  a  question ; 
as,  "  Does  it  rain  ?  " 

Interrogative  sentences  are  generally  introduced  by  the  interrof'aiive 
pronouns,  who,  which,  or  what ;  or,  by  the  auxiliaries,  do,  am,  have,  shall, 
may,  &c. ;  as,  "  Who  is  there  ?  " — "  What  is  truth  ?  " — "  Am  I  rio-ht  ?  " 
— "  May  we  go  ?  " 

An  Imperative  Sentence  is  one  that  expresses  a  com- 
mand, an  exhortation,  an  entreaty,  or  permission ;' as,  "Let 
it  rain." 

Imperative  sentences  are  generally  introduced  by  a  verb  in  the  im- 
perative mood,  let  being  often  used  for  that  purpose :  as,  "  Go  in  peace." 
— "  Let  him  arise." 

As  already  remarked,  the  subject  of  an  imperative  sentence  is  often 
understood ;  thus,  in  the  above  sentences,  thou  understood  is  the  subject. 

.  An  Exclamatory  Sentence  is  one  that  exclaims  some- 
thing ;  as,  "  How  it  rains ! " 

The  adverb  how  and  the  adjective  pronoun  what  are  often  used  to  in- 
troduce exclamatory  sentences ;  as,  "  How  dead  the  vegetable  kingdom 
lies ! " — "  What  a  bereavement ! " 

It  is  a  nice  point,  in  the  case  of  some  sentences  introduced  by  or  con- 
taining tTie  word  what,  to  determine  whether  they  are  exclamatory  or  in- 
terrogative ;  as,  "  Unhappy  man  that  I  am,  what  have  I  done ! "  In  such 
cases,  judge  from  the  context  whether  an  answer  is  expected :  if  so,  the 
sentence  is  interrogative  ;  if  not,  exclamatory. 

§  46.  As  regards  their  construction,  sentences  are  divided 
into  two  classes.  Simple  and  Compound. 

Simple  Sentences  are  such  as  have  but  one  member. 
(See  §  41.) 

Compound  Sentences  are  such  as  have  two  or  more  mem- 
bers. 

an  example.  How  are  interrogative  sentences  generally  introduced  ?  What  is  an 
imperative  sentence?  Give  an  example.  How  are  imperative  sentences  gener- 
ally introduced  ?  What  verb  is  often  used  for  this  purpose  ?  What  is  said  of  th« 
subject  of  these  sentences  ?  What  is  an  exclamatory  sentence  ?  Give  an  exam- 
ple. With  what  words  are  exclamatory  sentences  often  introduced  ?  With  what 
are  they  sometimes  liable  to  be  confounded  ?  What  is  the  rule  for  deciding  when 
a  sentence  is  exclamatory  and  when  interrogative  ? 

§  46.  As  regards  their  constniction,  how  are  sentences  divided  ?    What  are 
simple  sentences  ?   What  are  compound  sentences  ?  What  may  a  simple  sentence 


72 


SENTENCES. 


A  sentence  may  be  simple,  and  yet  contain  any  of  the  above  depend- 
ent clauses.  It  may  have  two  grammatical  subjects  connected  by  a  con- 
junction, or  a  compound  predicate,  and  yet  be  a  simple  sentence;  as, 
"  Humility  and  modesty  are  cardinal  virtues,  and  can  not  be  too  much 
cultivated."  A  compound  sentence  must  have  two  members  wholly  in- 
dependent of  each  other  in  construction,  each  having  its  own  subject 
and  predicate.  A  slight  change  in  the  above  example  will  make  it  a 
compound  sentence,  the  difference  between  the  two  consisting  not  in 
meaning,  but  simply  in  form  ;  thus,  "  Humility  and  modesty  are  cardinal 
virtues ;  they  can  not  be  too  much  cultivated." 


ORAL    EXERCISE. 

Point  out  the  sentences  which  compose  the  following 
extract,  and  state  with  regard  to  each,  whether  it  is  declara- 
tive, interrogative,  imperative,  or  exclamatory ;  also,  whether 
simple  or  compound.  If  simple,  state  what  is  the  subject 
(both  grammatical  and  logical),  and  what  the  predicate. 
Analyze  the  compound  sentences  into  their  members,  and 
state  the  subject  and  predicate  of  each. 

Point  out  and  name  any  of  the  above  clauses  that  may 

occur,  and  mention  the  leading  clause  on  w^hich  each  depends. 

Example. — The  first  stanza  given  below  constitutes  a  simple  impera- 
tive sentence.  The  first  line  is  an  independent  clause,  inasmuch  as  it 
makes  sense  by  itself.  The  second  line  is  a  participial  clause,  since  it 
contains  tlic  participle  filled.  The  last  two  lines  constitute  an  adverbial 
clause,  in  whieli  is  embraced  the  relative  tlause,  tJuU  heat  Ote  imirumring 
walks  like  autumn  rain.  Thou  understood,  being  nominative  to  the  lead- 
ing verb  let,  is  the  grammatical  subject ;  and  the  logical  also,  inasnuich 
as  there  are  no  limiting  terms.  The  whole  stanza,  as  it  stands,  is  the 
predicate. 

THE     CROWDED     STREET. 

"  Let  me  move  slowly  through  the  street, 
Filled  with  an  ever-shifting  train. 
Amid  the  sound  of  steps  that  beat 
The  murmuring  walks  like  autumn  ndn. 


contain  ?  W^hat  mu!»t  a  compound  BiMitonce  contain  ?  Give  an  example  of  a  slin- 
plo  sentence,  and  sihow  bow,  by  a  slight  change,  it  may  be  converted  into  a  com- 
pound one. 


ANALYSIS  OF   SENTENCES.  *iS 

How  fast  the  flitting  figures  come ! 

The  mild,  the  fierce,  the  stony  face ; 
Some  bright  with  thoughtless  smiles,  and  some 

Where  secret  tears  have  left  their  trace. 

They  pass,  to  toil,  to  strife,  to  rest ; 

To  halls  in  which  the  feast  is  spread ; 
To  chambers  where  the  funeral  guest 

In  silence  sits  beside  the  dead. 

And  some  to  happy  homes  repair, 

Where  children,  pressing  cheek  to  cheek, 
With  mute  caresses  shall  declare 

The  tenderness  they  can  not  speak. 

And  some  who  walk  in  calmness  here, 

Shall  shudder  as  they  reach  the  door, 
Where  one  who  made  their  dwelling  dear, 

Its  flower,  its  light,  is  ^een  no  more. 

Youth,  with  pale  cheek  and  slender  frame. 

And  dreams  of  greatness  in  thine  eye, 
Goest  thou  to  build  an  early  name, 

Or  early  in  the  task  to  die  ? 

Keen  son  of  trade,  with  eager  brow. 

Who  is  now  fluttering  in  thy  snare  ? 
Thy  golden  fortunes — tower  they  now, 

Or  melt  the  glittering  spires  in  air  ? 

Who  of  this  crowd  to-night  shall  tread 

The  dance  till  daylight  gleams  again  ? 
Who  sorrow  o'er  the  untimely  dead  ? 

Who  writhe  in  throes  of  mortal  pain  ? 

Some,  famine-struck,  shall  think  how  long 

The  cold,  dark  hours,  how  slow  the  light  j 
And  some,  who  flaunt  amid  the  throng, 

Shall  hide  in  dens  of  shame  to-night. 

» 
Each  where  his  tasks  or  pleasures  call. 

They  pass,  and  heed  each  other  not. 
There  is  who  heeds,  who  holds  them  all 

In  His  large  love  and  boundless  thought. 

These  struggling  tides  of  life  that  seem 

In  wayward,  aimless  course  to  tend.. 
Are  eddies  of  the  mighty  stream 

That  rolls  to  its  appointed  end." 

4  . 


74  CAPITAL  LETTEKS. 

LESSON    XIII. 

CAPITAL  LETTEES. 

§  47.  LettEes  arc  divided  into  two  classes,  known  as 

Small  Letters  (a,  b,  a,  /)  and  Capitals  (A,  B,  u^,   ^SS^ . 

The  former  constitute  the  great  bulk  of  all  kinds  of  printed 
or  written  matter.  Capitals,  however,  are  employed  in  cer- 
tain cases  at  the  commencement  of  words,  for  the  purpose 
of  attracting  special  attention. 

It  was  formerly  the  custom,  both  in  writing  and  printing, 
to  begin  every  noun  with  a  capital,  and  such  is  still  the 
practice  in  the  German  language.  This  custom,  however, 
conducing  to  no  useful  end,  has  very  properly  l^een  laid 
aside ;  and  at  the  present  day  the  use  of  capitals  is  confined 
to  such  cases  as  fall  under  the  following  rules. 

EULES  FOR  THE  USE  OP  CAPITAL  LETTERS. 

§  48.  Rule  I. — Begin  with  a  capital  the  first  word  of 
every  sentence. 

§  49.  Rule  II. — Begin  with  capitals  all  proper  nouns, 
and  titles  of  office,  honor,  and  respect;  as,  Home^  Myrth 
Avenue^  Mr,  Chairman,,  Dr,  Frankliii,  Gen.  Washingto)i^ 
dear  Sir, 

§  50.  Under  this  head  fall  adjectives,  as  well  as  common  noims,  when 
joined  to  proper  nouns  for  the  purpose  of  expressing  a  title ;  as,  Alex- 
ander the  Oreat,  Charles  the  Bald^  King  William,  Good  Queen  Bess. 


§  47.  IIow  arc  letters  divided  ?  Which  constitnte  the  greater  part  of  all  printed 
matter?  Where  and  for  wliat  purpose  are  capitals  employed?  What  custom 
formerly  prevailed  ? 

§  48.  Eepeat  Rule  I. 

§  49.  Eepeat  Eule  II.    Give  examples.* 

§  50.  What  adjectives  and  common  nouns  &11  under  this  rule  ? 


*  NoTB.— Hereafter,  when  an  ezt^nple  U  fdven  In  lllnitntion  of  a  defiaition  or  rule,  the  student  b  re- 
inetted  to  repeat  U  wlUtout  its  being  required  by  a  apecial  question. 


CAPITAL  LETTERS.  75 

§  51.  When  the  title  is  employed  without  the  proper  name,  if  nsed 
in  addressing  a.  person,  commence  it  with  a  capital ;  if  not,  in  which 
case  it  will  be  preceded  by  the  article  the^  commence  it  with  a  small  let- 
ter.  Thus :  "  0  King,  live  forever ! " — "  The  king  soon  after  resigned 
his  crown."  When  used  without  reference  to  a  particular  individual, 
such  titles  are  common  nouns  and  must  commence  with  small  letters ; 
as,  "  A  king  is  no  better  than  his  subjects." 

§  52.  The  same  principle  apphes  to  the  words  mountain,  river,  gulf, 
&c.  When  joined  to  proper  nouns,  either  with  or  without  a  preposition 
between,  they  must  begin  with  capitals ;  as,  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the 
Mississippi  River,  Hudson^ s  Bay,  tlie  Gulf  of  Guinea,  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  tlie  Isle  of  Man.  When  used  by  themselves,  though  with  refer- 
ence to  particular  objects,  they  must  commence  with  small  letters ;  as, 
"  These  mountains  are  covered  with  snow." 

§  53.  The  words  north,  east,  south,  and  west,  and  their  compounds 
north-east,  &c.,  when  nouns,  referring  to  certain  districts  of  country  or 
the  people  that  inhabit  them,  begin  with  capitals ;  when  nouns,  refer- 
ring to  a  point  of  the  compass,  and  generally  when  adjectives,  they 
commence  with  small  letters.  Thus:  "The  South  generally  opposed 
the  bill." — "  The  wind  is  from  the  souths — "  Florida  is  south-west  of  New 
York." 

§  54.  Heaven,  used  in  the  singular  and  signifying  the  abode  of  the 
blest,  must  commence  with  a  capital ;  as,  "  Let  Heaven  be  your  goal." 
In  the  plural,  it  signifies  the  sky  and  begins  with  a  small  letter ;  as, 
"  The  Jieavens  were  overcast." 

§  55.  The  names  of  the  months  and  the  days  of  the  week  must  com- 
mence with  capitals ;  those  of  the  seasons,  with  small  letters ;  as,  May, 
Sunday,  summer, 

§  56.  Rule  III. — Begin  with  capitals  all  adjectives 
formed  from  proper  nouns;  as,  Roman,  Spanish,  Eliza- 
bethan, 

§  51.  What  rule  applies  to  the  title  when  used  without  the  proper  name  ? 
When  used  without  reference  to  a  particular  individual,  what  do  such  titles  he* 
come,  and  how  must  they  commence  ? 

§  53.  To  what  words  does  this  same  principle  apply? 

§  53.  State  the  rule  that  applies  to  the  words  nc/rth,  east,  smtli,  west,  and  their 
compounds. 

§54.  How  must  the  word  Heaven  commence?  In  the  plural  number,  what 
does  it  signify,  and  how  must  it  commence  ? 

§  55.  How  must  the  names  of  the  months,  the  days  of  the  week,  and  the  sea- 
sons, commence  ? 

§  56.  Kepeat  Rule  III.  What  ia  said  of  the  usage  of  the  French  language  on 
this  point  ? 


T6  CAPITAL   LETTERS. 

In  this  respect,  the  usage  of  the  French  language  diflfers  from  ours. 

§  67.  Under  this  head  fall  adjectives  denoting  a  sect  or  religion, 
whether  formed  from  proper  nouns  or  not ;  as,  Catholic,  Protectant,  Unu 
versalist. 

§  58.  A  few  adjectives  derived  from  proper  nouns,  used  merely  to 
express  a  quality,  without  reference  to  the  names  from  which  they  are 
derived,  begin  with  small  letters.  Thus,  stentorian,  though  derived  from 
Stentor,  a  fabulous  personage  noted  for  the  strength  of  his  lungs,  is  now 
used  as  simply  sjnonymous  with  loud  and  does  not  commence  with  a 
capital.  The  word  lieavenly  is  another  case  in  point.  When  used  in  the 
sense  of  very  great,  more  than  eartMy,  it  must  begin  with  a  small  letter ; 
an  initial  capital  is  proper  only  when  it  means,  literally,  pertaining  to 
Heaven.  We  speak  of  the  "  heavenly  beauty  of  a  landscape  "  ;  but,  "  the 
Heavenly  rest  in  store  for  believers  ". 

§  59.  Rule  IV. — Begin  with  capitals  common  nouns 
when  spoken  to,  or  spoken  of,  in  a  direct  and  lively  manner, 
as  persons. 

In  these  cases,  usage  is  by  no  means  uniform.  In  the  inferior  kinds 
of  personification,  for  instance,  where  sex  merely  is  attributed  to  inani- 
mate objects,  a  small  letter  must  be  used ;  as,  "  The  sun  sheds  his  beams 
upon  the  earth."  A  capital  is  proper  only  in  the  more  vivid  and  glow- 
ing personifications. 

§  60.  Rule  V. — Begin  with  a  capital  the  first  word  of 
every  line  of  poetry ;  as, 

"  Swans  sing  before  they  die ;  'twere  no  bad  thing, 
Should  certain  persons  die  before  they  sing." 
§  61.  The  only  exception  to  this  rule  is  in  the  case  of  humorous  po- 
etry, when  a  word  is  divided  at  the  end  of  a  line,  and  a  portion  of  it  is 
carried  to  the  beginning  of  the  next  verse :  in  this  case,  the  syllables  thus 
carried  over  must  not  commence  with  a  capital.     As, 
"  Pyrrhus,  you  tempt  a  danger  high, 
Wlien  you  would  steal  from  angry  li- 
oness her  cubs." 

§  57.  To  what  other  adjectives  docs  this  rule  apply  ? 

§  58.  State  the  rule  applicable  to  a  few  adjectives  derived  from  proper  names, 
liut  now  uBcd  merely  to  express  a  quality.  Illustrate  this  principle  in  the  case 
of  the  words  stentorian  and  Jieavenly. 

§  59.  Repeat  Rule  IV.    In  what  cases  is  it  not  applicable  f 

§  60.  Repeat  Rule  V. 

§  01.  What  Is  the  only  exception  to  this  rule  ? 


CAPITAL  LETTEES.  77 

§  62.  Rule  VI. — Begin  with  capitals  all  appellations  of 
the  Deitj,  and  the  personal  pronouns  he  and  thou  when 
standing  for  His  name. 

Under  this  head  are  embraced  adjectives  which  form  part  of  the  titles 
applied  to  the  Deity ;  as,  "  the  Eternal  One,"  "  the  Sup'eme  Being  ". 

§  63.  It  must  be  observed  that  several  of  the  divine  appellations  are 
also  used  as  common  nouns,  and  in  that  case,  of  course,  commence  with 
{<mall  letters.  This  principle  is  illustrated  in  the  following  sentences  bj 
the  use  of  the  words  god  and  providence : — "  The  gods  of  the  heathen  bow 
before  our  G^oc?." — "  Trust  in  Providence.'''' — "  The  providence  [foreseeing 
care]  of  God  directs  every  event." 

§  64.  Rule  VII. — Begin  with  a  capital  the  first  word  of 
a  direct  quotation ;  that  is,  one  that  forms  a  complete  sen, 
tence  by  itself  and  is  not  connected  with  what  precedes  bj: 
that^  if^  or  any  other  conjunction ;  as,  "  Remember  the  old 
maxim :  '  Honesty  is  the  best  policy.' " 

In  such  a  sentence  as  this,  "  He  has  come  to  the  conclusion  thai 
*  honesty  is  the  best  policy ',"  It  would  be  wrong  to  commence  honesty 
with  a  capital,  because  the  quotation  is  introduced  by  that. 

§  65.  Rule  VIII. — Begin  with  a  capital  every  noun,  ad- 
jective, and  verb,  in  the  titles  of  books  and  headings  of  chap- 
ters ;  as,  "  Hervey's  '  Meditatiotu  among  the  Tombs ' ". 

In  advertisements,  handbills,  &c.,  it  is  customary  to  begin  with  capi- 
tals the  names  of  the  principal  objects,  to  which  it  is  desired  to  draAv 
attention. 

%QQ.  Rule  IX. — Begin  with  capitals  words  that  are  the 
leading  subjects  of  chapters,  articles,  or  paragraphs. 

Thus,  when  a  word  is  being  defined,  it  is  proper  to  commence  it  with 
a  capital ;  as  in  §  42. 

This  rule  leaves  much  to  the  judgment  of  the  writer.    It  is  not  well 

§  62.  Repeat  Rule  VI.    What  adjectives  fall  under  this  rule  ? 

§  63.  How  are  several  of  the  divine  appellations  also  used  ?  In  this  case,  how 
must  they  commence  ?    Illustrate  this  principle. 

§  64.  Repeat  Rule  VII.  If  the  quotation  is  introduced  by  that,  how  must  it 
commence  ? 

§  65.  Repeat  Rule  VIII.  What  is  the  custom  in  advertisements,  handbills,  &c.  ? 

§  66.  Repeat  Rule  IX.  What  Is  said  about  interpreting  this  rule  too  liberally  J 
When  there  is  doubt,  what  ia  the  safest  course  ? 


78  CAPITAL  LETTERS. 

to  interpret  it  too  liberally,  as  has  been  done  by  some  transcendentalists 
and  imitators  of  German  philosophers,  who  speak  of  the  Me  and  the  Not 
J/c,  Entity,  the  Oood,  the  Beautiful,  and  the  like,  checkering  the  page 
with  plentiful  capitals  as  if  it  were  a  turgid  advertisement.  This  is  bad 
taste.     Wherever  there  is  any  reasonable  doubt,  use  a  small  letter. 

§  67.  Rule  X. — The  pronoun  I^  and  the  interjection  O, 
must  always  be  written  with  capitals. 

§  68.  Observe  the  dilFerence  between  the  interjections  0  and  oh.  The 
former  is  used  only  before  the  names  of  objects  addressed  or  invoked,  is 
not  immediately  followed  by  an  exclamation-point  (!),  and  must  always  be 
a  capital ;  the  latter  is  used  by  itself  to  denote  diflfercnt  emotions  of  the 
mind,  has  an  exclamation-point  after  it,  and  begins  with  a  small  letter, 
except  at  the  commencement  of  a  sentence. 

§  69.  Rule  XI. — Begin  with  capitals  words  denoting 
well-known  events,  historical  eras,  noted  written  instruments, 
extraordinary  i^hysical  phenomena,  and  the  like ;  as,  the 
American  Bevolution,  the  Middle  A(/es,  the  Magna  Charta, 
the  Gulf  /Stream,  the  Aurora  Borealis. 

The  object  of  beginning  such  words  with  capitals  is  to  enable  the 
reader  to  distinguish  at  once  between  the  individual  objects  they  repre- 
sent and  common  nouns  of  the  same  form  and  appearance.  This  must  be 
done  in  all  cases  where  there  is  liability  of  confusion.  Thus  in  the  sen- 
tence, "  Then  cometh  the  Judgment,"  if  we  mean  the  Day  of  Judgment, 
judgment  must  begin  with  a  capital,  or  the  writer's  meaning  may  be  mis- 
understood. 

§  70.  Use  a  small  letter  in  all  cases  where  one  of  these 
eleven  rules  does  not  apply.  Wlien  in  doubt,  use  a  small 
letter. 

§  71.  In  printed  matter,  a  style  of  character  formed  like 
capitals,  but  smaller,  is  employed  for  running  titles,  captions 
of  chapters  and  paragraphs  (see  §  212),  &c. ;  as,  a,  b,  c. 
These  are  known  as  small  capitals. 


S  67.  Repeat  Rule  X. 

§  08.  What  interjcctiona  muet  not  be  confonndcd  f  What  must  be  ob8cr>'cd 
with  respect  to  0  ?    What,  respecting  oh  f 

§  09.  Repeat  Rule  XI.  What  is  pained  by  followiDg  this  rule  ?  Illustrate  its 
application  in  the  sentence,  "  Then  cometh  the  Judgment." 

§  70.  Wlicn  none  of  those  rules  apply,  what  must  be  used  ? 

§  71.  In  printed  matter,  what  style  of  cbaractor  is  used  for  miming  titles,  &c  f 


EXEECISE  ON  CAPITALS.  7d 

LESSON   XIV. 

EXEECISE     ON     CAPITALS.* 

In  the  following  sentences,  apply  the  rules  given  in  the 
preceding  lesson.  Where  a  capital  is  improperly  used,  sub- 
stitute a  small  letter. 

Under  §  48.  act  well  thy  Part,  avoid  the  appearance  of  Evil,  watch 
and  Pray,  labor  Conquers  all  Things,  what  a  heart-rending  Scene ! 
has  honor  left  the  world  ?  thou  art  mortal,  truth  is  mighty,  whither 
can  I  fly  ?    what  a  disappointment ! 

Under  §  49.  charles  martel  defeated  the  saracens.  what  has  become 
of  the  mohegans,  the  pequots,  the  iroquois,  the  mohawks,  and  the  hun- 
dred other  powerful  tribes  that  lived  east  {see  §  53)  of  the  mississippi 
when  our  fathers  landed  at  plymouth  and  Jamestown  ?  iceland  belongs 
to  denmark.  sir  william  herschel  was  born  in  1V38,  at  hanover,  in  ger- 
many. 

Under  §  50.  edward  the  elder  succeeded  his  father,  alfred  the  great, 
on  the  throne  of  england.  John  lackland  usurped  the  crown  of  his 
Brother,  richard  The  lion-hearted,  during  the  absence  of  the  latter  in  the 
holy  land. 

Under  §  51,  52.  great  king,  forgive  me.  the  king  hastily  took  horse 
and  fled  to  london.  An  emperor,  after  all,  is  but  a  man.  dukes,  carls, 
counts,  and  Knights,  flocked  to  the  crusades  {see  §  69).  The  amazon  is 
the  largest  River  in  the  World,  mountains  and  oceans  shall  waste  away. 
The  Pyrenees  form  the  Boundary  between  france  and  Spain.  These 
Mountains  are  infested  by  daring  Banditti. 

Under  §  53,  54,  55.  as  far  as  the  east  is  from  the  west,  as  far  as 
heaven  is  from  Earth,  so  far  is  Vice  from  Virtue,  Truth  from  Falsehood, 
our  winter  consists  of  three  months,  december,  January,  and  february. 
The  senator  has  spoken  for  the  west ;  lot  him  understand  that  the  west 
is  capable  of  speaking  for  itself,  an  east  wind  often  brings  a  Storm. 
Last  tuesday  the  wind  was  north-west. 

Under  §  56, 57.  most  of  the  french  peasants  belong  to  the  roman  cath- 
olic church.  The  reign  of  queen  anne  is  generally  admitted  to  have 
been  the  augustan  age  of  english  literature,  in  civilization  and  Refine- 
ment, christian  lands  far  surpass  mohammedan  and  pagan  countries. 

Under  §  58.  The  north  american  Indians  endure  the  tortures  of  their 
Enemies  with  Stoical  fortitude,    beau  brummell's  tastes  were  decidedly 

*  Note  to  the  Teacher.— The  portions  of  this  book  headed  Exercise  may 
be  either  recited  orally  or  written  out,  as  the  teacher  prefers.  The  latter  method, 
however,  in  the  author's  opinion,  is  attended  with  great  advantages  over  the 
former,  which  will  more  than  make  up  for  the  additional  time  it  may  consmne. 
When  required  to  write  these  tasks,  the  student  is  not  only  likely  to  receive  a  much 
more  durable  impression  of  the  principles  illustrated,  but  is  at  the  same  time  ex- 
ercised in  orthography  and  penmanship,  and  forms,  from  the  close  observation 
of  words  thus  required,  an  invaluable  habit  of  precision. 


80  EXEECISE  ON  CA1»ITALS. 

epicurean,  a  Platonic  attachment  subsisted  between  petrarch  and  laura, 
A  long  face  and  puritanical  demeanor  are  no  proofs  of  a  man's  piety, 
dicsbach  discovered  the  process  of  making  Prussian  blue. 

Under  §  59,  60.  Fiercely  grim  war  unfolds  his  flag.  The  moon  can 
infuse  no  warmth  into  her  rays. 

honor,  thou  blood-stained  god  (§  63) !  at  whose  red  iiltar 
sit  war  and  homicide,  oh  (§  68)  to  what  madness 
will  insult  drive  thy  votaries ! 

humility  herself,  divinely  mild, 

subUme  religion's  meek  and  modest  child. 

peace,  thy  olive  wand  extend, 
and  bid  wild  war  his  ravage  end, 
man  with  brother  man  to  meet, 
and  as  a  brother  kindly  Greet 

Under  §  61.  ^r 

Her  cheeks  were  ros- 
y,  and  so  was  her  nose ; 
And  her  hat 
Was  of  sat- 
in, and  dirty  at  that. 

Under  §  62,  63.  how  comprehensive  is  the  providence  of  god  ;  he 
orders  all  things  for  his  Creatures'  Good,  those  who  trust  in  providence, 
He  will  not  desert,  omnipotent  creator,  all-wife,  eternal  being,  thou 
keepest  us  from  day  to  day !  In  the  latter  days  the  comforter  shall 
come. 

Under  §  64.  What  sound  advice  is  conveyed  in  Bion's  Maxim : 
"  know  Thyself."  If  "  a  tree  is-  known  by  its  Fruit ",  as  our  saviour  said, 
what  must  we  think  of  uncharitable  christians  ? 

Under  §  65.  Burke's  "  philosophical  inquiry  into  the  origin  of  our 
ideas  of  the  subhme  and  beatiful  ",  and  alison's  "  essays  on  the  nature 
and  principles  of  taste  ",  are  standard  text-books  on  the  subjects  of  which 
they  respectively  treat,  sisraondi's  "  historical  view  of  the  literature  of 
the  south  of  europe  "  is  a  work  well  worthy  of  careful  study. 

Under  §  67,  68.  i  banished — i,  a  roman  senator  !  beware,  o  treacher- 
ous people !  i  have  reasoned,  i  have  threatened,  i  have  prayed  ;  and  yi-t 
thou  art  not  moved,  o  hard-hearted  man.  oh  lor  a  lodge  in  some  vast 
wilderness !     whither,  oh  whither  can  i  go  V 

Under  §  69.  the  wars  of  the  roses  desolated  england  between  the 
years  1455  and  1485.  the  invincible  armada,  fitted  out  by  the  Spaniards 
against  england,  was  the  largest  naval  armament  that  europe  ever  saw. 
the  flight  of  mohammcd  from  mecca,  known  in  history  as  the  hegira,  took 
place  622  A.  D.,  and  is  the  era  from  which  the  arabians  and  persians  still 
tompute  their  time,  the  norman  conquest  was  the  means  of  introducing 
chivalry  and  the  feudal  system  into  England. 


PART  II. 

PUNCTUATION. 
LESSSON    XV. 

PRINCIPLES   OF  THE   ART. 

§  72.  Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  written  lan- 
guage by  points,  in  order  that  the  relations  of  words  and 
clauses  may  be  plainly  seen,  and  their  meaning  be  readily 
understood. 

In  spoken  language,  these  relations  are  sufficiently  indicated  by  the 
pauses  and  inflections  of  the  voice ;  but,  as  written  language  has  no  such 
aids,  it  is  necessary  to  supply  the  deficiency  with  arbitrary  marks. 

§  73.  Tlie  ancients  originally  wrote  their  manuscripts 
without  marks  or  divisions  of  any  kind.  Points  are  said  to 
have  been  first  used  about  200  b.  c,  by  Aristophanes,  a  gram- 
marian of  Alexandria,  but  did  not  come  into  general  use  for 
several  centuries.  The  modern  system  of  punctuation  was 
invented  by  Manutius,  a  learned  printer  who  flourished  in 
Venice  at  the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth  century.  To 
him  we  are  indebted  for  developing  the  leading  principles 

§  72.  What  is  punctuation  ?  How  are  the  relations  of  words  and  clauses  in- 
dicated ia  spoken  language  ? 

§  73.  How  did  the  ancients  write  their  manuscripts  ?  When  and  by  whom 
were  points  invented  ?  How  long  before  they  came  into  general  use  ?  By  whom 
was  the  modem  system  devised  ?    When  and  where  did  the  inventor  live  ? 


82  TRINCirLES   OP  THE  ART. 

of  the  art,  though  in  some  of  their  details  they  have  since 
that  time  undergone  considerable  modification. 

§  74.  Punctuation  does  not  generally  receive  in  educa- 
tional institutions  the  attention  its  importance  demands ;  and 
hence  in  the  case  of  otherwise  well-informed  persons,  there 
is  too  often  a  lack  of  accurate  and  practical  information  on 
this  subject.  Even  those  who  have  made  literary  pursuits  a 
profession,  have  regarded  this  important  art  as  altogether 
beneath  their  notice,  and  leave  their  manuscripts  to  be  sup- 
plied with  points  entirely  at  the  discretion  of  the  printer. 
As  there  is  no  man  at  whose  liands  business  or  friendship 
does  not  require-  an  occasional  letter,  so  there  is  none  that 
ought  not  to  be  able,  by  a  proper  use  of  points,  to  make  his 
meaning  intelligible ;  particularly  since  the  art  is  simple  in 
itself,  is  founded  on  the  principles  of  grammar,  and  often 
admirably  illustrates  the  latter  science. 

§  75.  Punctuation  not  only  serves  to  make  an  author's 
meaning  plain,  but  often  saves  it  from  being  entirely  miscon- 
ceived. There  are  many  cases  in  which  a  change  of  ix)inta 
completely  alters  the  sentiment. 

An  English  statesman  once  took  advantage  of  this  fact  to  free  him- 
self from  an  embarrassing  position.  Having  charged  an  oflScer  of  gov- 
ernment with  dishonesty,  he  was  required  by  Parliament,  mider  a  heavy 
penalty^  publicly  to  retract  the  accusation  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
At  the  appointed  time  he  appeared  with  a  written  recantation,  which  he 
read  aloud  as  follows :  "  I  said  he  was  dishonest,  it  is  true ;  and  I  am 
sorry  for  it."  This  was  satisfactory ;  but  what  was  the  surprise  of  Par- 
liament, the  following  day,  to  see  the  retraction  printed  in  the  papers 
thus :  "  I  said  he  was  dishonest ;  it  is  true,  and  I  am  sorry  for  it ! "  By 
a  simple  transposition  of  the  comma  and  semicolon,  the  ingenious  slan- 
derer represented  himself  to  the  country,  not  only  as  having  made  no 
recantation,  but  even  as  having  reiterated  the  charge  in  the  very  face  of 
Parliament. 

§  76,  It  is  frequently  objected  to  the  study  of  Punctua- 

§  74.  What  is  said  of  the  general  ncslcct  of  punctuation  ?  Why  ought  a 
knowlcdpfo  of  the  art  to  bo  possessed  by  all  ? 

§  75.  What  does  punctuation  often  prevent  ?  How  may  a  complete  change  of 
Bontimeut  frequently  be  made  ?    Bcpcat  an  anecdote  illustrative  of  this  foot. 


PEESrCIPLES  OF  THE  AET.  83 

tion  that  good  usage  differs  widely  in  tliis  respect,  and  it  is 
therefore  impossible  to  lay  down  any  fixed  rules  on  the  sub- 
ject. To  a  certain  extent  it  is  true  thafusage  differs.  Punc- 
tuation is  an  art  in  which  there  is  great  room  for  the  exercise 
of  taste ;  and  tastes  will  be  found  to  vary  in  this,  as  well  as  in 
every  thing  else.  Yet  it  is  equally  true  that,  as  an  art,  it  is 
founded  on  certain  great  and  definite  principles ;  and  that, 
while  considerable  latitude  is  allowed  in  the  application  of 
these,  whatever  directly  violates  them  is  wrong  and  inadmis- 
sible. As  well  might  it  be  argued  that  the  study  of  rhetoric 
is  unnecessary,  because  different  authors  use  different  styles 
of  expression ;  or,  that  there  are  no  grammatical  principles 
from  which  to  deduce  rules,  because  even  in  celebrated  au- 
thors we  have  frequent  instances  of  false  sjmtax.  The  faults, 
of  others,  whether  in  grammar  or  Punctuation,  should  not 
be  seized  on  by  any  one  as  an  excuse  for  his  own  ignorance ; 
but  should  rather  lead  him  to  redoubled  diligence,  that  he 
may  avoid  the  rock  on  which  they  have  split. 

§  77.  Old  grammarians  taught  that  points  were  used 
merely  as  aids  to  reading ;  and  that,  when  the  pupil  came  to 
a  comma,  he  should  stop  till  he  could  count  o?^e,  when  to  a 
semicolon,  till  he  could  say  one^  two^  &g.  ;  and  some  writers, 
in  accordance  with  this  principle,  use  points,  without  refer- 
ence to  sentential  structure,  wherever  they  wish  the  reader 
to  pause,  determining  what  mark  is  to  be  employed  solely 
by  the  length  of  the  pause  required.  From  such  a  system 
grave  errors  necessarily  result.  However  convenient  it  may 
be  to  give  such  instructions  to  a  child  when  beginning  to 
read,  it  vrill  soon  be  found  that,  if  he  remembers  them  and 
carries  them  out,  he  will  not  only  constantly  violate  the  prin- 
ciples of  elocution,  but  will  for  the  most  part  fail  to  under- 
stand the  meaning  of  the  sentences  he  enunciates.     Punctu- 

§  76.  What  objection  is  frequently  made  to  the  study  of  punctuation  ?  Does 
usage  differ  ?  For  what  iS  there  great  room  ?  On  what,  nevertheless,  is  the  art 
founded  ?    Is  there  any  ground  for  the  objection  ? 

§  T7.  What  did  old  grammarians  teach  with  regard  to  points  ?  What  will  re- 
cult  from  carrying  out  such  >  system  ?    What  connection  is  there  between  punc* 


84  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  AET. 

ation  is  entirely  independent  of  elocution.  Its  primary  ob- 
ject is  to  bring  out  the  writer's  meaning,  and  so  far  only  is  it 
an  aid  to  the  reader.  Rhetorical  pauses  occur  as  freciucntly 
where  points  are  not  found  as  where  they  are ;  and  for  a 
learner  to  depend  for  these  on  commas  and  semicolons  would 
effectually  prevent  his  becoming  a  good  reader,  just  as  the 
use  of  such  marks  wherever  a  cessation  of  the  voice  is  re- 
quired would  completely  obscure  a  writer's  meaning.  This 
may  be  seen  by  comparing  a  passage  properiy  punctuated 
with  the  same  passage  pointed  as  its  delivery  would  reqmre. 

Properly  PuNCTtiATED,  Tlic  people  of  the  United  States  have  justly 
supposed  that  the  policy  of  protecting  their  industry  against  foreign 
legislation  and  foreign  industry  was  fully  settled,  not  by  a  single  act,  but 
by  repeated  and  deliberate  acts  of  government,  performed  at  distant  and 
frequent  intervals. 

Pdnctuatep  for  Delivery.  The  people  of  the  United  States,  have 
justly  supposed,  that  the  policy,  of  protecting  their  industry,  against  for- 
eign legislation  and  foreign  industry,  was  fully  settled ;  not,  by  a  single 
act ;  but,  by  repeated  and  deliberate  acts  of  government,  performed,  at 
distant  and  frequent  intervals. 

From  a  paragraph  punctuated  like  the  last,  little  mean- 
ing can  be  gathered. 

§  78.  Let  the  following  principles  with  regard  to  Punc- 
tuation be  constantly  borne  in  mind : — 

I.  Points  must  be  placed  without  reference  to  rhetorical 
pauses.  In  the  expression  yes^  air,  if  we  consulted  delivery 
we  would  place  no  point  after  yes  ;  grammar,  however,  re- 
quires a  comma  there. 

II.  The  principal  use  of  ix)ints  is  to  separate  words  and 
clauses,  and  indicate  the  dcgivc  of  connection  between  them. 
Thus,  clauses  between  which  the  connection  is  close  must  be 
separated  by  commas ;  those  in  which  it  is  more  remote,  by 
semicolons. 

III.  Points  are  also  used  to  indicate  what  part  of  speech 

tnatlon  and  elocntlon  ?    How  does  a  passage  properly  punctuated  compare  with 
the  same  passage  pointed  for  delivery  ? 

§  T8.  What  must  not  bo  consulted  in  the  use  of  points  ?  What  is  the  principal 
use  of  points  ?  What  else  arc  they  employed  to  indicate  ?  lUustrato  tliis  with  th» 


PEINCIPLt:S   OF  THE  ART.  S6 

a  word  is.  Tims,  shame  is  in  most  sentences  a  noun  or  verb ; 
if  used  as  an  interjection,  it  has  an  exclamation-point  after 
it,  to  denote  the  fact — shame! 

IV.  Another  office  they  perform  by  showing  to  what  class 
a  sentence  belongs.  Thus,  "  George  is  well,"  followed  by  a 
period,  is  a  declarative  sentence,  asserting  that  George  is  in 
good  health :  followed  by  an  interrogation-point,  it  is  an  in- 
terrogative sentence,  and  implies  belief  that  he  is  well,  to- 
gether with  an  inquiry  whether  it  is  not  so ;  in  other  words, 
it  is  equivalent  to  "  George  is  well ;  is  he  not  ?  "  This  im- 
portant difference  of  meaning  can  be  conveyed  in  no  other 
way  than  by  the  use  respectively  of  the  period  and  interro- 
gation-point. 

V.  Points  are  also  employed  to  indicate  a  sudden  transi- 
tion or  break  in  the  construction  or  meaning.  Thus,  w^here 
a  sentence  is  suddenly  interrupted  or  broken  off,  a  dash  is 
placed ;  as,  "  "Woe  to  the  destroyer !  woe  to  the ." 

VI.  Finally,  they  are  used  to  denote  the  omission  of 
words.  Such  is  the  office  of  the  commas  in  the  following 
sentence :  "  Reading  maketh  a  full  man ;  conference,  a  ready 
man ;  writing,  an  exact  man."  The  verb  maketh  being  left 
out  in  the  last  two  clauses,  commas  are  inserted  to  denote 
the  omissions. 

VII.  Never  introduce  a  point  unless  you  have  some  posi- 
tive rule  for  so  doing.  Whenever  there  is  any  reasonable 
doubt  as  to  the  propriety  of  employing  the  comma,  do  not 
use  it.  The  tendency  of  punctuators  at  the  present  day  is 
to  introduce  too  many  points. 

VIII.  Be  guided  by  rules  and  principles,  no  matter  how 
many  or  how  few  points  they  may  require.  Sentences  may 
be  so  constructed  as  to  need  points  after  almost  every  word ; 
while  others,  even  of  some  length,  require  no  division  at  all. 

word  sJiame.  What  other  office  do  they  perform  ?  Show  this  with  the  sentence, 
"  George  is  well."  What  do  they  frequently  indicate  in  the  construction  or  mean- 
ing ?  What  else  are  they  used  to  denote  ?  When  there  is  doubt  as  to  the  pro- 
priety of  employing  a  comma,  what  is  the  safest  course  ?  What  is  the  tendency 
of  punctuators  at  the  present  day  ?  What  is  stated  under  the  eighth  head  respect" 


86  THE  PEBIOD. 

,  IX,  Remember  that  "circumstances  alter  cases";  and 
that,  therefore,  a  mode  of  pointing  which  is  accurate  in  a 
short  sentence  may  not,  in  a  long  one,  be  either  tasteful  or 
even  strictly  correct.  We  shall  revert  to  this  subject  from 
time  to  time  hereafter. 

§  79.    The  characters  used  in  Punctuation  are  as  fol- 
lows : — 

Pebiod, 

Intekeogahon-point, 
Exclamation-point, 
Colon, 

Bra 

Wc  shall  proceed  to  take  these  up  in  turn.  Careful  iattention  to  the 
rules,  and  particularly  to  the  examples  that  illustrate  them,  will,  it  is 
believed,  enable  the  writer  to  punctuate  with  propriety  every  sentence 
that  can  occur.  If,  after  diligent  trial,  he  finds  himself  unable  to  do 
this  in  the  case  of  any  sentence  of  his  own  composition,  he  is  advised  to 
look  over  it  carefully,  to  see  if  he  has  not  violated  some  principle  of 
rhetoric  or  grammar.  Punctuating  often  leads  to  the  detection  of  such 
errors. 


• 

Semicolon, 

• 
• 

■,  p 

Comma, 

9 

1 

Dash, 

• 
• 

Parentheses, 

() 

IKETS, 

[] 

LESSON   XVI. 

the  period. 

§  80.  The  word  Period  is  derived  from  the  Greek  lan- 
guage, and  means  a  circuit.  Tliis  name  is  given  to  the  full 
stop  (.),  because  it  is  placed  after  a  complete  circuit  of 
words.  The  period  is  found  in  manuscripts  of  a  compara- 
tively early  date,  and  was  in  use  before  any  other  point. 


ing  the  frequency  and  paucity  of  points  in  a  sentence  ?  According  to  the  ninth 
head,  what  is  to  be  regarded  in  punctuating  a  sentence  ? 

§  71).  Name  tlic  characters  used  in  punctnation.  What  advice  i8  given  to  ibo 
writer,  when  he  finds  difficulty  in  punctuating  a  sentence  of  Ids  own  composition  ? 

§  80.  Give  the  derivation  and  meaning  of  the  word  peiiod.  Why  is  the  full 
etop  so  called  ?    When  did  the  period  como  into  use  T 


THE  PEEIOD.  8T 

§  81.  Rule  L — ^A  period  must  be  placed  after  every  de- 
clarative and  imperative  sentence ;  as,  "  Honesty  is  the  best 
policy."— "Fear  God." 

These  sentences  having  been  defined  in  §  45,  it  is  presumed  no  diffi- 
culty will  be  experienced  in  recognizing  them,  or  in  determining  how 
much  of  a  paragraph  must  be  taken  to  compose  them.  As  soon  as  a 
passage  makes  complete  sense,  if  it  is  at  the  same  time  independent  of 
what  follows  in  construction  and  not  closely  connected  with  it  in  mean- 
ing, the  sentence  is  complete ;  and,  if  it  be  declarative  or  imperative, 
must  close  with  a  period. 

§  82.  The  degree  of  closeness  in  the  connection  is  a  matter  which 
must  be  left  somewhat  to  individual  judgment ;  and  this  degree,  it  may 
be  remarked,  is  often  the  only  criterion  which  a  writer  has  to  guide  him 
in  deciding  between  periods  and  colons,  colons  and  semicolons,  semico- 
lons and  commas.  No  rule  can  be  laid  down  that  will  cover  every  case ; 
but  one  or  two  principles  may  be  stated,  as  applicable  to  most  of  the 
cases  that  occur  in  practice. 

I.  Words,  clauses,  and  members,  united  by  a  conjunction,  are  re- 
garded as  more  closely  connected  than  those  between  which  the  conjunc- 
tion is  omitted.  Thus :  "  Truth  is  the  basis  of  every  virtue.  Its  pre- 
cepts should  be  religiously  obeyed."  It  is  not  improper  to  divide  this 
passage  into  two  distinct  sentences,  and  to  separate  them  with  a  period. 
If,  however,  we  introduce  a  conjunction  between  them,  we  make  the  con- 
nection closer,  and  should  not  use  a  higher  point  than  a  semicolon. 
"  Truth  is  the  basis  of  every  virtue ;  and  its  precepts  should  be  re- 
ligiously obeyed." 

II.  A  clause  containing  a  relative  pronoun  is  more  closely  connected 
with  the  one  containing  the  antecedent,  than  the  same  clause  would  be 
if  a  personal  or  demonstrative  pronoun  were  substituted  for  the  relative. 
"  At  this  critical  moment,  Murat  was  ordered  to  charge  with  his  indom- 
itable cavalry ;  which  movement  having  been  performed  with  his  usual 
gallantry,  the  issue  of  the  battle  was  no  longer  doubtful."  By  changing 
which  to  thky  we  diminish  the  connection  between  the  two  parts,  and 
may  punctuate  differently.  "  At  this  critical  moment,  Murat  was  ordered 
to  charge  with  his  indomitable  cavalry.     This  movement,  &c." 

§  81.  Eepeat  Rule  I.    How  is  it  determined  when  a  sentence  is  complete  ? 

§  82.  What  is  said  of  the  degree  of  closeness  in  the  connection  ?  What  effect 
does  the  omission  of  a  conjunction  hetween  words,  clauses,  and  members,  have 
on  the  closeness  of  the  connection  ?  Does  a  relative  or  a  demonstrative  pronoun 
institute  a  closer  connection  hetween  the  parts  of  a  sentence  ?  Illustrate  this. 
How  does  a  portion  of  a  sentence  containing  a  distinct  subject  of  its  own  com- 


88  THE  PERIOD. 

III.  A  portion  of  a  sentence  that  has  a  distinct  subject  of  its  own  is 
less  closely  connected  with  the  rest,  than  such  a  part  as  depends  for  its 
subject  on  some  preceding  clause.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  Truth  is  the 
basis  of  every  virtue ;  and  its  precepts  should  be  religiously  obeyed,"  a 
semicolon  is  placed  after  virtue^  because  a  new  nominative,  }yrccejA^^  is 
introduced  into  the  final  member.  If  we  keep  truth  as  the  subject,  the 
connection  will  be  closer,  and  we  must  substitute  a  comma  for  the  semi- 
colon after  virtue ;  as,  "  Truth  is  the  basis  of  every  virtue,  and  should 
be  cherished  by  all." 

It  follows  from  the  above  remarks  that  it  is  not  proper  to  place  a 
period  immediately  before  a  conjunction  which  closely  connects  what 
follows  with  what  precedes.  This  is  frequently  done  in  the  translation 
of  the  Scriptures,  where  we  have  verse  after  verse  commencing  with 
and ;  but  it  is  not  authorized  by  good  modern  usage.  In  such  cases, 
cither  the  passage  so  introduced  ought  to  form  part  of  the  preceding  sen- 
tence, and  be  separated  from  it  only  by  a  colon  or  semicolon ;  or  else,  if 
this  is  impracticable  on  account  of  the  great  length  or  intricacy  it  would 
involve,  the  following  sentence  should  be  remodelled  in  such  a  way  as  to 
commence  with  some  other  word.  These  remarks  apply  to  all  conjunc- 
tions that  form  a  decided  connection  between  the  parts  ;  such  as  merely 
signify  to  continue  tJie  narrative,  and  imply  no  connection  with  what  pre- 
cedes, may  without  impropriety  introduce  a  new  sentence. 

As  the  substance  of  the  preceding  paragraph,  we  may  lay  down  the 
following  general  rule,  remembering  that  there  are  occasional  excep- 
tions : — A  sentence  should  not  commence  with  the  conjunctions  and,  for^ 
or  however  ;  but  may  do  so  with  but,  now,  and  moreover. 

EXAMPLES. 

**  Friendship  is  not  a  source  of  pleasure  only ;  it  is  also  a  source  of  duty : 
and  of  the  responsibilities  it  imposes  we  should  never  be  unmindful." 
Here  and  intimately  connects  the  two  members,  and  a  period  must 
not  precede  it. 

"  There  is  only  one  species  of  misery  which  friendship  can  not  comfort, 
the  misery  of  atrocious  guilt ;  for  there  are  no  pangs  but  those  of 
conscience  that  sympathy  does  not  alleviate."  Here  for  implies  so 
close  a  connection  that  a  period  is  inadmissible  before  it. 

pare  in  cloeeness  of  connection  with  one  that  depends  for  its  subject  on  some 
preceding  clause  ?    Oive  an  example. 

Where  is  it  improper  to  place  n  period  ?  In  what  book  do  we  ft^nently  find 
pentenccs  commcncincj  with  awrf,?  What  two  rcmcdicgi  are  Bnjrgcsted  for  puch 
cases  ?  To  what  conjunctions  do  these  rcmarlvs  apply  ?  What  conjunctions  may 
with  propriety  commence  a  new  sentence  1  Is  it  ever  proper  to  begin  a  eootcnce 
with  anolf   In  what  case  ? 


THE   PERIOD.  89 

"  Then  cried  they  all  again,  saying,  Not  this  man,  but  Barabbas.  Now 
Barabbas  was  a  robber."  In  this  passage  it  is  right  to  precede  now 
with  a  period,  because  this  word  does  not  imply  connection,  but  means 
simply  to  continue  the  narrative,  to  go  on. 

•'  Domitian  was  a  low,  cruel,  and  sensual  wretch,  whose  highest  pleasure 
consisted  in  maiming  helpless  flies,  whose  mind  was  paralyzed  by 
sloth,  whose  soul  was  surfeited  with  disgusting  gluttony,  whose  heart 
was  dead  to  every  generous  impulse,  and  whose  conscience  was  seared 
by  crime.  And  this  was  the  emperor  of  Rome,  the  controller  of  the 
world's  destinies."  Here  a  period  may  be  placed  before  and.  Sen- 
tences in  which,  as  in  this,  and  does  not  closely  connect,  but  is  simply 
equivalent  to  noio,  as  used  in  the  preceding  example,  constitute  an  ex- 
ception to  the  general  rule,  and  admit  a  period  before  and. 

§  83.  From  Remark  II.  it  follows  that  a  period  must  not  separate  a 
relative  clause  from  its  antecedent.  It  would,  therefore,  be  wrong  to 
substitute  periods  for  semicolons  in  the  following  sentence :  "  There  are 
men  whose  powers  operate  in  leisure  and  in  retirement,  and  whose  intel- 
lectual vigor  deserts  them  in  conversation  ;  whom  merriment  confuses, 
and  objection  disconcerts ;  whose  bashfulncss  restrains  their  exertion, 
and  suffers  them  not  to  speak  till  the  time  of  speaking  is  past." 

§  84.  Rule  II. — A  period  must  be  placed  after  every 
abbreviated  word ;  as,  Dr.  Geo.  F.  Johnson^  F.  JR.  8. 

§  85.  The  period  in  this  case  merely  indicates  the  abbreviation,  and 
does  not  take  the  place  of  other  stops.  The  punctuation  must  be  the 
same  as  if  no  such  period  were  employed ;  as,  "  My  clerk  put  the  letter 
in  the  P.  0. ;  there  can  be  no  mistake  about  it."  "  Horace  Jones,  jr., 
M.  D.,  LL.  D." 

§  86.  When,  however,  an  abbreviated  word  ends  a  sentence,  only  one 
period  must  be  used  ;  for  an  example,  see  the  close  of  the  preceding  par- 
agraph. 

§  87.  Under  this  head  fall  Roman  capitals  and  small  letters,  when 
used  for  figures ;  as,  "  Charles  I.  was  the  son  of  James  I." 

§  88.  An  important  exception  to  this  rule  must  be  noted.  When  an 
abbreviated  word  is  of  such  constant  occurrence  that,  without  reference 
to  the  word  from  which  it  comes,  it  is  itself  considered  as  a  component 
part  of  our  language,  no  period  is  placed  after  it.  Thus,  it  would  be  wrong 
to  put  a  period  after  eve  abbreviated  from  evening,  or  hack  from  hackney. 

§  83.  What  must  a  period  in  no  case  separate  ? 

§  84  Repeat  Rule  II. 

§  85.  In  this  case  what  does  the  period  indicate  ?  Must  it  take  the  place  of 
other  stops  ? 

§  86.  In  what  case,  however,  is  there  an  exception  ? 

§  87.  When  must  the  Roman  capitals  and  small  letters  be  followed  by  periods, 
under  this  rule  ? 

S  88.  What  large  class  of  abbreviated  words  constiltite  an  exception  to  this  rule  ? 


90  THE  PEElOD. 

§  89.  So,  when  the  first  syllable  of  a  Christian  or  given  name  is  used, 
not  as  an  abbreviation  of  the  latter,  but  as  a  familiar  substitute  for  it,  no 
period  must  be  employed  ;  as,  "  Ben  Jonson  ". 

For  a  comprehensive  list  of  abbreviations,  see  Table  at  the  close  of 
the  volume. 

EXERCISE    I. 

Insert  periods  in  the  following  sentences,  wherever  re- 
quired by  the  above  rules : — 

A  graphic  description  of  this  scene  may  be  found  in  Gibbon's  Hist  of 
the  Dec  and  Fall  of  the  Rom  Em,  vol  ii,  chap  5 

Mrs  Felicia  Hemans  was  born  in  Liverpool,  Eng,  and  died  at  Dublin, 
1835,  A  D 

Messrs  G  Longman  and  Co  have  received  a  note  from  the  Cor  Sec  of 
the  Nat  Shipwreck  Soc,  informing  them  of  the  loss  of  one  of  their  ves- 
sels off  the  N  E  coast  of  S  A,  at  8  p  m,  on  the  20th  of  Jan 

James  VI  of  Scotland  became  Jas  I  of  England 

EXERCISE  II. 

In  the  following  extract  all  the  stops  are  inserted  except 
periods.  The  pupil  is  required  to  introduce  these  points 
wherever  they  are  needed,  and  to  begin  each  new  sentence 
with  a  capital. 

THE  GKOTTO  OF  ADELSBUEG. 

"  This  great  natural  curiosity  lies  about  thirty  miles  from  the  Adri. 
atic,  back  in  the  Friuli  Mountains,  near  the  province  of  Cariola  we 
arrived  at  the  nearest  tavern  at  three  in  the  afternoon ;  and,  subscribing 
our  names  upon  the  magistrate's  books,  took  four  guides  and  the  re- 
quisite number  of  torches,  and  started  on  foot  a  half  hour's  walk  brought 
us  to  a  large  rushing  stream,  which,  after  turning  a  mill,  disappeared  with 
violence  into  the  mouth  of  a  broad  cavern  sunk  in  the  base  of  a  moun- 
tain an  iron  gate  opened  on  the  nearest  side  ;  and,  lighting  our  torches, 
we  received  an  addition  of  half  a  dozen  men  to  our  party  of  guides,  anci 
entered  we  descended  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  through  a  capacious  gal- 
lery of  rock,  up  to  the  ankles  in  mud,  and  feeling  continually  the  drippings 
exuding  from  the  roof,  till  by  the  echoing  murmurs  of  dashing  water  wo 
found  ourselves  approaching  the  bed  of  a  subterraneous  river  we  soon 
emerged  in  a  vast  cavern,  whose  height,  though  we  had  twenty  torches, 
was  lost  in  the  darkness  the  river  rushed  dimly  below  us,  at  the  depth  of 
perhaps  fifty  feet,  partially  illuminated  by  a  row  of  lamps,  hung  on  a  slight 
wooden  bridge  by  which  v/e  were  to  cross  to  the  opposite  side 

"  We  came  after  a  while  to  a  deeper  descent,  which  opened  into  a 
magnificent  and  spacious  hall  it  is  called  "  the  ball-room  ",  and  is  used  as 

§  89.  What  exception  refers  to  certain  Christian  or  given  names  ? 


mTERKOaATION-POIKT. — EXCLAMATION-POINT.  0 1 

Buch  once  a  year,  on  the  occasion  of  a  certain  lUyrian  feast  the  floor  has 
been  cleared  of  stalagmites,  the  roof  and  sides  are  ornamented  beyond 
all  art  with  glittering  spars,  a  natural  gallery  with  a  balustrade  of  sta- 
lactites contains  the  orchestra,  and  side-rooms  are  all  around  where  sup- 
per might  be  laid  and  dressing-rooms  offered  in  the  style  of  a  palace  I 
can  imagme  nothing  more  magnificent  than  such  a  scene  a  literal  descrip- 
tion of  it  even  would  read  like  a  fairy  tale 

"  A  little  farther  on,  we  came  to  a  perfect  representation  of  a  water- 
fall the  impregnated  water  had  fallen  on  a  declivity,  and,  with  a  slightly 
ferruginous  tinge  of  yellow,  poured  over  in  the  most  natural  resemblance 
to  a  cascade  after  a  rain  we  proceeded  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  and 
found  a  small  room  like  a  chapel,  with  a  pulpit  in  which  stood  one  of  the 
guides,  who  gave  us,  as  we  stood  beneath,  an  Illyrian  exhortation  there 
was  a  sounding-board  above,  and  I  have  seen  pulpits  in  old  Gothic 
churches  that  seemed,  at  a  first  glance,  to  have  less  method  in  their  ar- 
chitecture the  last  thing  we  reached  was  the  most  beautiful  from  the 
cornice  of  a  long  gallery  hung  a  thin,  translucent  sheet  of  spar,  in  the 
graceful  and  waving  folds  of  a  curtain ;  with  a  lamp  behind,  the  hand 
could  be  seen  through  any  part  of  it  it  was  perhaps  twenty  feet  in 
length,  and  hung  five  or  six  feet  down  from  the  roof  of  the  cavern  the 
most  singular  part  of  it  was  the  fringe  a  ferruginous  stain  ran  through 
it  from  one  end  to  the  other,  with  the  exactness  of  a  drawn  line ;  and 
thence  to  the  curving  edge  a  most  delicate  rose-teint  faded  gradually 
doAvn,  like  the  last  flush  of  sunset  through  a  silken  curtain  had  it  been 
a  work  of  art,  done  in  alabaster  and  stained  with  the  pencil,  it  would 
have  been  thought  admirable 

"  The  guide  wished  us  to  proceed,  but  our  feet  were  wet,  and  the  air 
of  the  cavern  was  too  chill  we  were  at  least /ow?*  miles,  they  told  us,  from 
the  entrance,  having  walked  briskly  for  upwards  of  two  hours  the  grotto 
is  said  to  extend  ten  miles  under  the  mountains,  and  has  never  been 
thoroughly  explored  parties  have  started  with  provisions,  and  passed 
forty-eight  hours  in  it  without  finding  the  extremity  it  seems  to  me  that 
any  city  I  ever  saw  might  be  concealed  in  its  caverns  I  have  often  tried 
to  conceive  of  the  grottos  of  Antiparos,  and  the  celebrated  caverns  of  our 
own  country ;  but  I  received  here  an  entirely  new  idea  of  the  possibility 
of  space  under  ground  there  is  no  conceiving  it  unseen  the  river  emerges 
on  the  other  side  of  the  mountain,  seven  or  eight  miles  from  its  first 
entrance  " 


LESSON   XVII. 

INTEEROGATION-POINT. — EXCLAMATION-POINT. 

§  90.  Rule  I. — An  interrogation-point  must  be  placed 
after  every  interrogative  sentence,  member,  and  clause. 

§  90.  Bepeat  Rule  I.,  relating  to  the  use  of  the  interrogation-point. 


92  INTERROGATION-rOINT. — EXCLAMATION-POINT. 

EXAMPLES. 

I. — After  an  mterrogaltve  sentence. — "  Arc  wc  not  mortal  ?  " 
II. — After  an  interroffative  member. — "  Our  earthly  pilgrimage  is  nearly 

finished ;  shall  wc  not,  then,  think  of  eternity  ?  " 
III. — After  an  inien-ogative  clause. — "  As  we  must  soon  die  (who  knows 
but  this  very  night?),  we  should  fix  our  thoughts  on  eternity." 

§  91.  Some  sentences  which  arc  declarative  in  fonn  are  really  inter- 
rogative (see  §  78,  Remark  IV.),  and  must  of  course  be  closed  with  inter- 
rogation-points. Thus  the  sentence,  "  You  will  remain  all  night,"  is  de- 
clarative  in  form,  and,  followed  by  a  period,  indicates  a  positive  announce- 
ment of  the  fact.  If  intended  as  an  indirect  question,  however,  ("  You 
will  remain  all  night,  will  you  not  ?  ")  it  must  be  followed  by  an  interrc- 
gation-point. 

§  92.  After  sentences  which  merely  assert  that  a  question  has  been 
asked,  a  period  must  be  placed,  unless  the  exact  words  of  the  question 
are  given ;  in  this  case,  an  interrogation-point  takes  the  place  of  a  period, 
and  must  stand  before  the  quotation-points  enclosing  the  question.  As, 
"  They  asked  me  whether  I  would  return." — "  They  asked  me,  '  Will  you 
return  ? ' " 

So,  if  a  question  is  introduced  into  the  middle  of  a  sentence,  in  the 
exact  words  in  which  it  was  asked,  an  interrogation-point  must  be  placed 
before  the  last  quotation-points,  the  following  word  must  commence  with 
a  small  letter,  and  the  remainder  of  the  sentence  must  be  punctuated  as 
it  would  be  if  no  quoted  clause  were  introduced ;  as,  '*  These  frequent 
and  lamentable  catastrophes  ask  the  question,  '  Are  you  prepared  to 
die  ? '  with  startling  emphasis."  The  clauses  of  such  sentences,  how- 
ever, are  capable  of  a  decidedly  better  arrangement ;  as  will  be  seen  by 
the  following  alteration  :  "  These  frequent  and  lamentable  catastrophes 
ask,  with  startling  emphasis,  the  question,  'Are  you  prepared  to 
die  ? ' " 

§  93.  Rule  II. — An  exclamation-point  must  be  placed 
after  every  exclamatory  sentence,  member,  clause,  and  ex- 
pression. 


1 01.  What  form  have  some  interrogative  sentences  f  How  must  they  h% 
tloBcd?    inuetratc  this. 

§  03.  State  the  principle  relating  to  sentences  which  merely  declare  that  a 
qiicpt  ion  has  been  asked.  How  must  we  punctuate  questions  introduced  into  the 
middle  of  a  sentence  ?  How  is  the  rest  of  the  sentence  to  be  pohitcd  ?  What  is 
■aid  respecting  the  arrangement  of  such  sentences  ? 

i  98.  Repeat  Rule  II.,  rclatmg  to  the  use  of  the  exclamation-point. 


INTERKOGATION-POINT. — EXCLAMATION-POINT.  93 

EXAMPLES. 

L  After  an  exclamatory  sentence. — "  How  slow  yon  tiny  vessel  ploughs 

the  main ! " 
II.  After  an  exclamatory  member. — "  The  clock  is  striking  midnight ; 
how  suggestive  and  solemn  is  the  sound ! " 

III.  After  an  exclamatory  clause. — "  We  buried  him  (with  what  intense 
and  heart-rending  sorrow  !)  on  the  field  which  his  Ufe-blood  had  con- 
secrated." 

IV.  After  exclamatory  expressions. — "  Consummate  horror !  guilt  withoui 
a  name ! " 

§  94.  From  the  above  examples  it  will  be  seen  that  the  interroga- 
tion-point and  exclamation-point  do  not  always  denote  the  same  degree 
of  separation,  but  are  used  when  the  connection  is  close  as  well  as  when 
it  is  remote.  Thus,  in  Examples  I.  and  II.  they  are  placed  after  propo- 
sitions making  complete  sense,  and  indicate  as  entire  separation  from 
what  follows  as  would  be  denoted  by  a  period.  In  the  last  example, 
on  the  contrary,  the  exclamation-points  are  by  no  means  equivalent,  in 
this  respect,  to  periods.  The  two  points  under  consideration,  therefore, 
not  only  separate  complete  and  independent  sentences  with  the  force  of 
periods ;  but  are  also  placed  between  members,  like  colons  and  semi- 
colons, and  even  between  clauses,  like  commas.  In  the  first  case,  the 
words  following  these  points  must  commence  with  capitals ;  in  the  last 
three  cases,  with  small  letters,  as  may  be  seen  above.  The  sole  crite- 
rion is  the  degree  of  connection  subsisting  between  the  parts  thus  sepa- 
rated. 

§  95.  Sometimes  the  connection  is  so  close  that  the  different  parts  are 
dependent  on  each  other  in  construction,  or  do  not  make  sense  when  taken 
separately.  In  this  case,  if  each  division  is  of  itself  distinctly  interroga- 
tive, varying  the  question  each  time  by  applying  it  to  some  new  object ; 
or,  in  other  words,  if  it  contains  a  repetition  of  the  auxiliary  that  asks 
the  question,  or  an  interrogative  adverb,  or  adverbial  clause, — use  an  in- 
terrogation-point after  each,  and  let  the  following  word  commence  with  a 
small  letter ;  as,  "  How  shall  a  man  obtain  the  kingdom  of  God  ?  by  im- 
piety ?  by  murder  ?  by  falsehood  ?  by  theft  ?  " 

If,  however,  such  divisions  do  not  apply  the  question  to  any  new 
object,  but  merely  state  additional  circumstances  respecting  that  which 

§  94.  What  is  said  respecting  the  degree  of  separation  denoted  by  the  interro- 
gation-point and  exclamation-point?  When  they  separate  complete  and  inde- 
pendent Bentences,  how  must  the  next  word  commence  ?  When  they  stand  be- 
tween members  and  clauses,  how  must  the  following  word  commence  ? 

§  95.  State  the  mode  of  punctuating,  when  the  parts  are  dependent  on  each 
other  in  construction,  and  each  varies  the  question  by  applying  it  to  some  new 
object.    How  are  these  parts  separated,  if  they  do  not  thus  vary  the  question  ? 


94  INTERKOGATION-POINT. — EXCLAMATION-POINT. 

formed  the  original  subject  of  the  inquiry,  they  must  not  be  separated 
by  interrogation-points,  but  by  commas,  semicolons,  or  colons,  as  here- 
after directed  ;  as,  "  Where  are  now  the  great  cities  of  antiquity,  those 
vast  and  mighty  cities,  the  pride  of  kings,  the  ornament  of  empires  ?  " 
Here  but  one  question  is  asked,  and  but  one  interrogation-point  must  be 
employed. 

§  96.  Observe,  moreover,  that,  when  a  succession  of  interrogative  ad- 
Terbs  or  adverbial  clauses  commence  a  sentence,  the  incompleteness  of 
the  sense  prevents  us  from  placing  an  interrogation-point  after  each  of 
them,  as  we  would  do  if  they  stood  at  its  close.  The  two  following  sen- 
tences illustrate  this  difference : — "  Under  what  circumstances,  for  what 
purpose,  at  whose  instigation,  did  he  come  ?  " — "  Under  what  circum- 
stances did  he  come  ?  for  what  purpose  ?  at  whose  instigation  ? " 

§  97.  The  principles  laid  down  in  §  95,  96,  apply  to  the  exclamation- 
point  with  the  same  force  as  to  the  interrogation-point.  The  following 
examples  will  illustrate  their  application : — 

Under  §  95.  What  cold-blooded  cruelty  did  Nero  manifest !  what 
disgusting  sensuality!  what  black  ingratitude!  what  concentrated  self- 
ishness 1  what  utter  disregard  of  his  duties,  as  a  monarch  and  as  a 
man  ! — How  quickly  fled  that  happy  season ;  those  days  of  dreamy  love, 
those  nights  of  innocent  festivity  ! 

Under  §  96.  IIow  extensive,  how  varied,  how  beautiful,  how  sublime, 
is  the  landscape ! — How  extensive  is  the  landscape  !  how  varied  !  how 
beautiful  I  how  sublime ! 

§  98.  Rule  HE. — An  exclamation-point  must  be  placed 
after  every  interjection  except  0/  as,  ah!  alas!  hold! 

For  an  explanation  of  the  diflference  between  0  and  oh  !  see  §  68. 

§  99.  In  some  cases,  when  an  interjection  is  very  closely  connected 
with  other  words,  the  exclamation-point  is  not  placed  between  them,  but 
reserved  for  the  close  of  the  expression ;  as,  "  Fie  upon  thee ! " 

§  100.  Two  interrogative  interjections,  eh  and  hey^  are  usually  fol- 
lowed by  the  interrogation-point;  as,  "You  think  it  suits  my.  com- 
plexion, hey  ?  " 

§  101.  Rule  IV. — An  exdamation-point  may  be  placed 

§  96.  In  what  case  Is  an  Interrogation-point  inadmissible  after  interrogative 
adverbs  or  adverbial  clauses,  following  each  other  in  a  series  ? 

§  97.  To  what  besides  the  interrogation-point  do  the  principles  Just  stated 
apply? 

§  98.  Repeat  Rule  m.  What  is  the  diflference  In  Bigniflcation  and  punctuation 
between  O  and  oh  f 

§  90.  When  an  interjection  is  very  closely  connected  with  other  words,  whero 
is  tlic  exclamation-point  placed  ? 

\  100.  What  interjcctlonB  are  usually  followed  by  the  interrogatlon-pohit  ? 


IKTEKKOGATION-rOINT.  —  EXCLAMATION-POINT.  9  5 

after  a  vocative  clause,  containing  an  earnest  or  solemn  in- 
vocation; as,  "O  Father  Supreme!  protect  us  from  the 
dangers  of  this  night." 

The  comma  may,  without  impropriety,  be  substituted,  in  such  a  case, 
for  the  exclamation-point ;  as,  "  0  Father  Supreme,  protect  us  from  the 
dangers  of  this  night." 

§  102.  Rule  V. — More  than  one  exclamation-point  may 
he  placed  after  a  sentence  or  expression  denoting  an  extraor- 
dinary degree  of  emotion ;  as,  "  Political  honesty ! !  "Where 
can  such  a  thing  be  found?" 

As  a  general  thing,  this  repetition  of  the  exclamation-point  is  con- 
fined to  humorous  and  satirical  compositions. 

EXERCISE. 

Insert,  in  the  following  sentences,  periods,  interrogation- 
points,  and  exclamation-points,  wherever  required  by  the 
rules  that  have  been  given : — 

Under  §  90.  There  is  no  precedent  applicable  to  the  question ;  for 
when  has  such  a  case  been  presented  in  our  past  history  When  may  we 
look  for  another  such  in  the  future  Who  hath  heard  such  a  thing  Who 
hath  seen  such  a  thing  Shall  the  earth  be  made  to  bring  forth  in  one 
day    Shall  a  nation  be  born  at  once 

Under  §  91.  I  have  not  seen  him  in  a  year  He  has  grown  I  sup- 
pose — You  intend  starting  in  Saturday's  steamer  — "  You  have  quite  re- 
covered from  your  injury  "  "  Quite  recovered  Oh  no ;  I  am  still  unable 
to  walk  " 

Under  §  92.  They  asked  me  why  I  wept  — They  asked  me,  "  Why 
do  you  weep  " — This  is  the  question :  whether  it  is  expedient  to  purchase 
temporal  pleasure  at  the  expense  of  eternal  happiness  — This  is  the 
question :  "  Is  it  expedient  to  purchase  temporal  pleasure  at  the  expense 
of  eternal  happiness  " — The  question  for  debate  was  whether  virtue  is 
always  a  source  of  happiness  — Pilate's  question,  "  What  is  truth  ",  has 
been  asked  by  many  a  candid  inquirer  — "  Who  is  there  "  demanded  the 
sentinel 

Under  §  93.  How  heavily  we  drag  the  load  of  life  — How  sweetly 
the  bee  winds  her  small  but  mellow  horn  — 0  thoughts  ineffable  0  virions 
blest  —0  the  times  0  the  morals  of  the  day  —Such  is  the  uncertainty  of 
life ;  yet  oh  how  seldom  do  we  realize  it  — While  in  this  part  of  the  coun- 
try, I  once  more  revisited  (and  alas  with  what  melstncholy  presentiments  ) 
the  home  of  my  youth 

S 101.  Repeat  Rule  IV.  In  such  cases,  what  may  be  substituted  for  the  excla- 
mation-point ? 

S  102.  Repeat  Rule  V.  To  what  kinds  of  composition  is  this  repetition  of  tb« 
exclamation-point  confined  ? 


96  INTERROGATION-POINT. — EXCLAilATION-POINT. 

Under  §  95, 96.  Who  shall  separate  us  from  the  love  of  Christ  shall 
tribulation  shall  distress  shall  persecution  shall  famine  shall  peril  shall 
sword  — I  am  charged  with  being  an  emissary  of  France  An  emissary 
of  France  And  for  what  end  It  is  alleged  that  I  wished  to  sell  the 
independence  of  my  country  And  for  what  end  Was  this  the  object 
of  my  ambition  and  is  this  the  mode  by  which  a  tribunal  of  justice 
reconciles  contradictions  — When,  where,  under  what  circumstances, 
did  it  happen  — When  did  it  happen  where  under  what  circumstances 

Under  §  91.  How  calm  was  the  ocean  how  gentle  its  swell  — IIow 
wide  was  the  sweep  of  the  rainbow's  wings  how  boundless  its  circle 
how  radiant  its  rings  — 0  virtue,  how  disinterested,  how  noble,  how 
lovely,  thou  art  — 0  virtue,  how  disinterested  thou  art  how  noble  how 
lovely  — 0  the  depth  of  the  riches  both  of  the  wisdom  and  knowledge 
of  God  how  unsearchable  are  Ilis  judgments,  and  His  ways  past  finding 
out 

Under  §  98.  Hark  daughter  of  Almon  — Hist  he  comes  — Hail 
sacred  day  — Lo  I  am  with  you  alway  — Zounds  the  man's  in  earnest  — 
Indeed  then  I  am  wrong  — 0  dear  what  can  the  matter  be  — Humph 
this  looks  suspicious  — Pshaw  what  can  we  do 

Under  §  99.  Woe  to  the  tempter  — Woe  is  me  — Shame  upon  thy  in- 
solence — Ah  me  — Away  with  him  — Hurrah  for  the  right — Henceforth, 
adieu  to  happiness 

Under  §  101.  King  of  kings  and  Lord  of  lords  in  humility  we  ap- 
proach Thy  altar 

0  Rome  my  country  city  of  the  soul 

The  orphans  of  the  heart  must  turn  to  thee. 

Lone  mother  of  dead  empires 

Men  of  Athens  listen  to  my  defence  — Ye  shades  of  the  mighty  dead 
listen  to  my  invocation 

Under  §  102.  An  honest  lawyer  An  anomaly  in  nature.  Cage 
him  when  you  find  him,  and  let  the  world  gaze  upon  the  wonder  — A 
discerning  lover  that  is  a  new  animal,  just  born  into  the  universe  — 
And  this  miserable  performance,  in  which  it  is  debatable  whether  there 
is  more  ignorance  or  pretension,  comes  before  the  world  with  the  high- 
sounding  title,  "  Dictionary  of  Dictionaries  " 

Miscellaneous. — Canst  thou  draw  out  leviathan  with  a  hook,  or  his 
tongue  with  a  cord  which  thou  Icttest  down  — When  saw  we  thee  an 
hungered,  or  athirst,  or  a  stranger,  or  naked,  or  sick,  or  in  prison,  and 
did  not  minister  unto  thee  — When  saw  we  thee  an  hungered,  and  did 
not  minister  unto  thee  or  athirst  or  a  stranger  or  naked  or  sick  or  in 
prison  — The  question,  "  What  is  man  ",  has  occupied  the  attention  of 
the  wisest  philosophers;  yet  how  few  have  given  a  satisfiictory  an- 
swer — An  ancient  safje,  being  asked  what  was  the  greatest  good  in  the 
smallest  compass,  replied,  "  The  human  mind  in  the  human  body "  — 
"  Am  I  dying  "  he  eagerly  asked  "  Dying  Oh  no  not  dying  "  was  the 
fiiint  but  hopeful  response  — It  rains  still,  hey  — Where  have  you  been, 
oh — Aroynt  thee,  witch — "Ha,  ha,  ha"  roared  the  squire,  who  en- 
joyed the  story  amazingly    "  Ha,  ha,  ha  "  echoed  the  whole  company 


THE  COLON.  97 

LESSON   XVIII. 

THE  COLON. 

§  103.  The  word  Colon  comes  from  the  Greek  language, 
and  means  limh  or  member.  Its  use  appears  to  have  origi- 
nated with  the  early  printers  of  Latin  books.  Formerly  it 
was  much  used,  and  seems  to  have  been  preferred  to  the 
semicolon,  which,  with  writers  of  the  present  day,  too  gener- 
ally usurps  its  place.  The  colon,  however,  has  a  distinct 
office  of  its  own  to  perform ;  and  there  are  many  cases  in 
which  no  point  can  with  propriety  be  substituted  for  it.  It 
indicates  the  next  greatest  degree  of  separation  to  that  de- 
noted by  the  period. 

§  104.  Rule  I. — A  colon  must  be  placed  between  the 
great  divisions  of  sentences,  when  minor  subdivisions  occur 
that  are  separated  by  semicolons;  as,  "We  perceive  the 
shadow  to  have  moved  along  the  dial,  but  did  not  see  it 
moving ;  we  obsen^e  that  the  grass  has  growTi,  though  it 
was  impossible  to  see  it  grow :  so  the  advances  we  make  in 
knowledge,  consisting  of  minute  and  gradual  steps,  are  per- 
ceivable only  after  intervals  of  time." 

The  example  just  given  is  composed  of  three  members,  of  which  it  is 
evident  that  the  first  two  are  more  closely  connected  with  each  other 
than  with  the  last.  The  former  requiring  a  semicolon  between  them,  a3 
will  appear  hereafter,  the  latter  must  be  cut  off  by  a  point  indicating  a 
greater  degree  of  separation, — that  is,  a  colon. 

§  105.  Rule  II. — A  colon  must  be  placed  before  a  formal 
enumeration  of  particulars,  and  a  direct  quotation,  when  re- 
ferred to  by  the  words  thus ^  following^  asfoUoios,  this^  these^ 
&c. ;  as,  "  Man  consists  of  three  parts :  first,  the  body,  with 


§  103.  From  what  language  is  the  word  cdUm  derived  ?  What  does  it  mean  ? 
With  whom  did  this  point  originate  ?  What  is  said  of  its  use  formerly  and  at  the 
present  day  ?    What  degree  of  separation  does  it  denote  ? 

§  104.  Repeat  Rule  I. 

§  105.  Repeat  Rule  II.  What  is  meant  by  a  formal  enumeration  of  particulars  7 
5 


i&S  THE   COLOX. 

its  sensual  appetites;  second,  the  mind,  with  its  thirst  for 
knowledge  and  other  noble  aspirations ;  third,  the  soul,  with 
its  undjdng  principle." — "  Mohammed  died  with  these  words 
on  his  lips :  '  O  God,  pardon  my  sins  !  Yes,  I  come  among 
my  fellow-citizens  on  high.' " 

By  "  a  formal  enumeration "  is  meant  one  in  which  the  particulars 
are  introduced  by  the  words /r«<,  secondly,  &c.,  or  similar  terms.  In  this 
case,  the  objects  enumerated  are  separated  from  each  other  by  semicolons ; 
and  before  the  first  a  colon  must  be  placed,  as  in  the  example  given  above. 
If  the  names  of  the  particulars  merely  are  given,  without  any  formal  in- 
troductory words  or  accompanying  description,  commas  are  placed  be- 
tween them,  and  a  semicolon,  instead  of  a  colon,  is  used  before  the  first ; 
as,  "  Grammar  is  divided  into  four  parts ;  Orthography,  Etymology,  Syn- 
tax, and  Prosody." 

§  106.  If  the  quoted  passage  consists  of  several  sentences  or  begins 
a  new  paragraph,  it  is  usual  to  place  a  colon  followed  by  a  dash  (: — )  at 
the  end  of  the  preceding  sentence ;  as,  "  The  cloth  having  been  removed, 
the  president  rose  and  said : — 

*  Ladies  and  gentlemen,  we  have  assembled,' "  &c. 

§  107.  If  the  quoted  passage  is  introduced  by  that,  or  if  it  is  short 
and  incorporated  in  the  middle  of  a  sentence,  a  colon  is  not  admissible 
before  it ;  as,  "  Remember  that '  one  to-day  is  worth  two  to-morrows.' " 
"  Bion's  favorite  maxim,  '  Know  thyself,'  is  worth  whole  pages  of  good 
advice." 

§  108.  When  the  quoted  passage  is  brought  in  without  any  introduc- 
tory word,  if  short,  it  is  generally  preceded  by  a  comma ;  if  long,  by  a 
colon ;  as,  "  A  simpleton,  meeting  a  philosopher,  asked  him,  *  What  af- 
fords wise  men  the  greatest  pleasure  ? '  Turning  on  his  heel,  the  sago 
promptly  replied,  '  To  get  rid  of  fools.' "  The  use  of  the  colon  in  this 
case  is  illustrated  in  §  105. 

§  109.  Rule  III. — A  colon  was  formerh",  and  may  now 
be,  placed  between  the  members  of  a  compound  sentence, 

When  thus  formally  enumerated,  how  are  the  particulars  separated  from  each 
other  ?  Wliat  marks  must  precede  the  first  ?  When  the  names  merely  are  given, 
how  arc  they  separated,  and  by  what  preceded  ? 

§  106.  If  the  quoted  passage  coneists  of  several  sentences  or  a  paragraph,  how 
is  the  prcccdiuf;  sentence  generally  closed? 

§  107.  In  what  case  Is  a  colon  inadmissihlo  hefore  a  quoted  passage  ? 

§  108.  State  the  principle  that  applies  to  a  quoted  passage  brought  In  without 
any  introductory  word. 

§  109.  Repeat  Rule  III.  What  is  said  of  usage  in  those  cases  ?  What  Is  tho 
highest  point  that  cnw  ho  used  between  mcmljcrs  connected  by  a  conjunction  ? 


THE  COLON.  99 

when  there  is  no  conjunction  between  them  and  the  connec- 
tion is  slight ;  as,  "  Never  flatter  the  people :  leave  that  to 
such  as  mean  to  betray  them." 

With  regard  to  the  cases  falling  under  this  rule,  usage  is  divided. 
Many  good  authorities  prefer  a  semicolon;  while  others  substitute  a 
period,  and  commence  a  new  sentence  with  what  follows.  It  appears  to 
be  settled,  however,  that,  if  the  members  are  connected  by  a  conjunction, 
a  semicolon  is  the  highest  point  that  can  be  placed  between  them ;  as, 
"  Never  flatter  the  people ;  but  leave  that  to  such  as  mean  to  betray 
them." 

EXERCISE. 

Insert,  wherever  required  in  the  following  sentences,  pe- 
riods, interrogation-points,  exclamation-points,  and  colons : — 

Under  §  104.  No  monumental  marble  emblazons  the  deeds  and  fame 
of  Marco  Bozarris  ;  a  few  round  stones  piled  over  his  head  are  all  that 
marks  his  grave  yet  his  name  is  conspicuous  among  the  greatest  heroes 
and  purest  patriots  of  history — "  Most  fashionable  ladies,"  says  a  plain- 
spoken  writer,  "  have  two  faces ;  one  face  to  sleep  in  and  another  to 
show  in  company  the  first  is  generally  reserved  for  the  husband  and 
family  at  home ;  the  other  is  put  on  to  please  strangers  abroad  the  family 
face  is  often  indiflerent  enough,  but  the  out-door  one  looks  something 
better  " — You  have  called  yourself  an  atom  in  the  universe ;  you  have 
said  that  you  were  but  an  insect  in  the  solar  blaze  is  your  present  pride 
consistent  with  these  professions 

Under  §  105.  The  object  of  this  book  is  twofold  first,  to  teach  the 
inexperienced  how  to  express  their  thoughts  correctly  and  elegantly ; 
secondly,  to  enable  them  to  appreciate  the  productions  of  others — The 
human  family  is  composed  of  five  races,  diflfering  from  each  other  in  fea- 
ture and  color  first,  the  Caucasian  or  white ;  second,  &c — Lord  Bacon 
has  summed  up  the  whole  matter  in  the  following  words  "  A  little  phi- 
losophy inclineth  men's  minds  to  atheism ;  but  depth  in  philosophy 
bringeth  men's  minds  to  religion  " — Where  can  you  find  anything  simpler 
yet  more  sublime  than  this  sentiment  of  Richter's  "  I  love  God  and  little 
children  " — He  answered  my  argument  thus  "  The  man  who  lives  by  hope 
Avill  die  by  despair  " 

Under  §  106.  Cato,  being  next  called  on  by  the  consul  for  his 
opinion,  delivered  the  following  forcible  speech 

Conscript  fathers,  I  perceive  that  those  who  have  spoken  before 
me,  &c 

Under  §  lOY.  Socrates  used  to  say  that  other  men  lived  in  order 
that  they  might  eat,  but  that  he  ate  in  order  that  he  might  live — The 
proposition  that  "  whatever  is,  is  right ",  admits  of  question — It  is  a  fact 
on  which  we  may  congratulate  ourselves,  that  "  honor  and  shame  from 
no  condition  rise  " — The  Spanish  proverb,  "  he  is  my  friend  that  grinds 
at  my  mill,"  exposes  the  false  pretensions  of  persons  who  will  not  go  out 
of  their  way  to  serve  those  for  whom  they  profess  friendship 


100  THE   SEmCOLON. 

Under  §  108.  Solomon  says  "  Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard " — 
Diogenes,  the  eccentric  Cynic  philosopher,  was  constantly  finding  fault 
with  his  pupils  and  acquaintances  To  excuse  himself,  he  was  accus- 
tomed to  say  " Other  dogs  bite  their  enemies;  but  I  bite  my  friends, 
that  I  may  save  them  " — A  Spanish  proverb  says  "  Four  persons  are  indis- 
pensable to  the  production  of  a  good  salad  first,  a  spendthrift  for  oil ; 
second,  a  miser  for  vinegar ;  third,  a  counsellor  lor  salt ;  fourth,  a  mad- 
man, to  stir  it  all  up  " 

Under  §  109.  Love  hath  wings  beware  lest  he  fly — I  entered  at  the 
first  window  that  I  could  reach  a  cloud  of  smoke  filled  the  apartment — 
Life  in  Sweden  is,  for  the  most  part,  patriarchal  almost  primeval  sim- 
plicity  reigns  over  this  northern  land,  almost  primeval  solitude  and  still- 
ness— Discretion  is  the  perfection  of  reason,  and  a  guide  in  all  the  duties 
of  life  cunning  is  a  kind  of  instinct,  that  looks  out  only  after  its  own  im- 
mediate interests  and  welfare 

Miscellaneous. — What  a  truthful  lesson  is  taught  in  these  words  of 
Sterne  "  So  quickly,  sometimes,  has  the  wheel  turned  round  that  many 
a  man  has  lived  to  enjoy  the  benefit  of  that  charity  which  his  own  piety 
projected" — Colton  has  truly  said  that  "  kings  and  their  subjects,  mas- 
ters and  servants,  find  a  common  level  in  two  places ;  at  the  foot  of  the 
cross,  and  in  the  grave" — We  have  in  use  two  kinds  of  language,  the 
spoken  and  the  written  the  one,  the  gift  of  God  ;  the  other,  the  invention 
of  man — How  fa'r  silence  is  prudence,  depends  upon  circumstances  I 
waive  that  question — You  have  friends  to  cheer  you  on ;  you  have  books 
and  teachers  to  aid  you  but  after  all  the  proper  education  of  your  mind 
must  be  your  own  work — Death  is  like  thunder  in  two  particulars  we 
are  alarmed  at  the  sound  of  it ;  and  it  is  formidable  only  from  what  ha* 
preceded  it 


LESSON  XIX. 

THE   SEMICOLON. 

§  110.  The  word  Semicolon  means  half  a  limb  or  mem- 
ber ;  and  the  point  is  used  to  indicate  the  next  greatest  de- 
gree of  separation  to  that  denoted  by  the  colon.  It  was  first 
employed  in  Italy,  and  seems  to  have  found  its  way  into  Eng- 
land about  the  commencement  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

§  111.  RuxE  I. — A  semicolon  must  be  placed  between  the 

§  110.  What  docs  the  woi-d  mnicoion  mean  ?    What  degree  of  separation  does 
it  indicate  ?  Where  was  it  first  employed  ?  Whwi  did  it  find  its  way  into  England  f 


THE   SEMICOLON.  101 

members  of  compomid  sentences  (see  §  41),  miless  the  con- 
nection is  exceedingly  close ;  as, "  Lying  lips  are  an  abomina- 
tion to  the  Lord ;  but  they  that  deal  truly  are  His  delight." 
We  have  already  seen,  in  §  109,  that,  when  there  is  no  conjunction 
between  the  members,  a  colon  may  be  used,  if  the  connection  is  slight ; 
a  semicolon,  however,  is  generally  preferred.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
the  members  are  very  short  and  the  connection  is  intimate,  a  comma  may 
without  impropriety  be  employed ;  as,  "  Simple  men  admire  the  learned, 
ignorant  men  despise  them."  Usage  on  this  point  is  much  divided,  \he 
choice  between  semicolon  and  comma  depending  entirely  on  the  degree 
of  connection  between  the  members,  respecting  which  different  minds 
can  not  be  expected  to  agree.  In  the  example  last  given,  either  a  semi- 
colon or  a  comma  may  be  placed  after  learned. 

§  112.  Rule  II. — A  semicolon  must  be  placed  between 
the  great  divisions  of  sentences,  when  minor- subdivisions  oc-' 
cur  that  are  separated  by  commas ;  as  "  Mirth  should  be  the 
embroidery  of  conversation,  not  the  web ;  and  wit  the  orna- 
ment of  the  mind,  not  the  furniture." 

§  113.  Rule  III. — When  a  colon  is  j)laced  before  an  enu- 
meration of  particulars,  the  objects  enumerated  must  be  sepa- 
rated by  semicolons  ;  as,  "  The  value  of  a  maxim  depends  on 
four  things :  the  correctness  of  the  principle  it  embodies ;  the 
subject  to  which  it  relates ;  the  extent  of  its  application ;  and 
the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  practically  carried  out." 

§  114.  Rule  IV. — A  semicolon  must  be  placed  before  an 
enumeration  of  particulars,  when  the  names  of  the  objects 
merely  are  given,  without  any  formal  introductory  words  or 
accompanying  description ;  as,  "  There  are  three  genders ; 
the  masculine,  the  feminine,  and  the  neuter." 

§  115.  Rule  V. — A  semicolon  must  be  placed  before  the 
conjunction  as,  when  it  introduces  an  example.  For  an  illus- 
tration, see  the  preceding  Rule. 

§  111.  Repeat  Rule  I.    What  other  point  may  be;u8pc\,  \^hf  n,  thpre  is  n«)  con^ 
junction  ?    When  the  connection  is  very  close,  wh4t  floJo^inJvy 'hj!  employe^?  1  ' 
§  112.  Repeat  Rule  n.  ..    .    .   »      •  >     ■ 

§  lis.  Repeat  Rale  III.  .'  '  '      •      '       ■•",,",>,'' 

§  114.  Repeat  Rule  IV.  '-  .  •  '    '  .  >'  1  '•   'i ''\  *  > 

§  115.  Repeat  Rule  V. 


102  THE  SEMICOLON. 

§  lie.  Rule  VI. — When  several  long  clauses  occur  in 
succession,  all  having  common  dependence  on  some  other 
clause  or  word,  they  must  be  separated  by  semicolons ;  as, 
"  K  we  neglected  no  opportunity  of  doing  good ;  if  we  fed 
the  hungry  and  ministered  to  the  sick ;  if  we  gave  up  our 
own  luxuries,  to  secm-e  necessary  comforts  for  the  destitute; 
though  no  man  might  be  aware  of  our  generosity,  yet  in  the 
applause  of  our  own  conscience  we  would  have  an  ample 
reward." 

§  11*7.  If  the  clauses  are  short,  they  may  be  separated  by  commas; 
as,  "  If  I  succeed,  if  I  reach  the  pinnacle  of  my  ambition,  you  shall  share 
my  triumph." 

EXERCISE. 

Insert  in  the  following  sentences,  wherever  required  by 
the  rules,  all  the  points  thus  far  considered : — 

Under  §  111.  Air  was  regarded  as  a  simple  substance  by  ancient 
philosophers  but  the  experiments  of  Cavendish  prove  it  to  be  composed 
of  oxygen  and  nitrogen — The  gem  has  lost  its  sparkle  scarce  a  vestige 
of  its  former  brilliancy  remains — The  porcupine  is  fond  of  cUmbing  trees 
and  for  this  purpose  he  is  furnished  with  very  long  claws — The  Lap- 
landers have  little  idea  of  rehgion  or  a  Supreme  Being  the  greater  part 
of  them  are  idolaters,  and  their  superstition  is  as  profound  as  their  wor- 
ship is  contemptible 

Under  §  112.  The  Jews  ruin  themselves  at  their  Passover  the  Moors, 
at  their  marriages  and  the  Christians,  in  their  law-suits — The  poisoned 
valley  of  Java  is  twenty  miles  in  extent,  and  of  considerable  width  it  pre- 
sents a  most  desolate  appearance,  being  entirely  destitute  of  vegetation 
— The  poet  uses  words,  indeed  but  they  are  merely  the  instruments  of  his 
art,  not  its  objects — Weeds  and  thistles,  ever  enemies  of  the  husbandman, 
must  be  rooted  out  from  the  garden  of  the  mind  good  seed  must  be  sown 
and  the  growing  crop  must  be  carefully  attended  to,  if  we  would  have  a 
plenteous  harvest 

Under  §  113.  The  true  order  of  learning  should  be  as  follows  first, 
what  is  necessary  second,  what  is  useful  and  third,  what  is  ornamental 
— (iod  hath  set  some  in  the  church  first,  apostles  secondarily,  prophets 
thirdly,  teachers  after  that,  miracles  then,  gifts  of  healings,  helps,  govern- 
ments, diversities  of  tongues — The  duties  of  man  are  twofold  first,  those 
that  he  owes  to  his  Creator  secondly,  those  due  to  his  fellow-men — Two 
paths  open  before  every  youth  on  the  one  hand,  that  of  vice,  with  its 
uui'cal  and  short-jiiiCi  ulcijsures  on  the  other,  that  of  virtue,  with  the 
gc/iuine  and  peftnifnimti  hi»f)J)iness  it  ensures 

Sli6..j^ei^eatRQieVi;  ■}':. 
In.  If  the  dependent  claubcii 'are  short,  bow  may  they  be  separated  ? 


THE   SEMICOLON.  103 

Under  §  114.  We  have  three  great  bulwarks  of  liberty  viz.,  schools, 
colleges,  and  universities — There  are  three  cases  the  nominative,  the 
possessive,  and  the  objective — According  to  a  late  writer,  London  sur- 
passes all  other  great  cities  in  four  particulars  size,  commerce,  fogs,  and 
pickpockets 

Under  §  115.  After  interjections,  pronouns  of  the  first  person  are 
generally  used  in  the  objective  case  as,  "  Ah  me  "  Those  of  the  second 
person,  on  the  other  hand,  follow  interjections  in  the  nominative  as, 
"Othou" 

Under  §  116.  The  greatest  man  is  he  who  chooses  the  right  with  in- 
vincible resolution  who  resists  the  sorest  temptations  from  within  and 
without  who  bears  the  heaviest  burdens  cheerfully  who  is  calmest  in 
storms,  and  most  fearless  under  menace  and  frowns  and  whose  reliance 
on  truth,  on  virtue,  and  on  God,  is  most  unfaltering — The  dehghtful 
freedom  of  Cowper's  manner,  so  acceptable  to  those  long  accustomed  to 
a  poetical  school  of  which  the  radical  fault  was  constraint  his  noble  and 
tender  morality  his  fervent  piety  his  glowing  and  well-expressed  patriot- 
ism his  descriptions,  unparalleled  in  vividness  and  accuracy  his  playful 
humor  and  powerful  satire, — all  conspired  to  render  him  one  of  the  most 
popular  poets  of  his  day 

Under  §117.  Kead  not  for  the  purpose  of  contradicting  and  con- 
futing nor  of  believing  and  taking  for  granted  nor  of  finding  material  for 
argument  and  conversation  but  in  order  to  weigh  and  consider  the 
thoughts  of  others — When  I  have  gone  from  earth  when  my  place  is 
vacant  when  my  pilgrimage  is  over  will  thy  faithful  heart  still  keep  my 
memory  green 

JliscELLANEOus.  This  widc-sprcad  republic  is  the  future  monument 
to  Washington  Maintain  its  independence  uphold  its  constitution  pre- 
serve its  union  defend  its  Uberty — The  ancients  feared  death  we,  thanks 
to  Christianity,  fear  only  dying — The  study  of  mathematics  cultivates  the 
reason  that  of  the  languages,  at  the  same  time,  the  reason  and  the  taste 
The  former  gives  power  to  the  mind  the  latter,  both  power  and  flexibility 
The  former,  by  itself,  would  prepare  us  for  a  state  of  certainties  which 
nowhere  exists  the  latter,  for  a  state  of  probabilities,  which  is  that  of 
common  life — Woman  in  Italy  is  trained  to  shrink  from  the  open  air  and 
the  public  gaze  she  is  no  rider  is  never  in  at  the  death  in  a  fox-hunt  is  no 
hand  at  a  whip,  if  her  life  depended  on  it  she  never  keeps  a  stall  at  a 
fancy  fair  never  takes  the  lead  at  a  debating  club  she  never  addresses  a 
stranger,  except,  perhaps,  behind  a  mask  in  carnival-season  her  pohtics 
are  lunited  to  wearing  tri-color  ribbons  and  refusing  an  Austrian  as  a 
partner  for  the  waltz  she  is  a  dunce,  and  makes  no  mystery  of  it  a 
coward,  and  glories  in  it — Lord  Chatham  made  an  administration  so 
checkered  and  speckled  he  put  together  a  piece  of  joinery  so  crossly  in- 
dented and  whimsically  dovetailed  he  constructed  a  cabinet  so  variously 
inlaid  with  whigs  and  tories,  patriots  and  courtiers, — that  it  was  utterly 
unsafe  to  touch  and  unsure  to  stand  on — Helmets  are  cleft  on  high  blood 
bursts  and  smokes  around 


104  THE  COMMA. 

LESSON    XX. 

THE   COMMA. 

§  118.  The  word  Comma  means  tJmt  which  is  cut  off\ 
and  the  mark  so  called  denotes  the  least  degree  of  separa- 
tion that  requires  a  point.  In  its  present  form,  the  comma 
is  not  found  in  manuscripts  anterior  to  the  ninth  century ;  a 
straight  line  drawn  vertically  between  the  words  was  for- 
merly used  in  its  place. 

§  119.  General  Rule. — ^The  comma  is  used  to  sepa- 
rate words,  phrases,  clauses,  and  short  members,  closely 
connected  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  but  requiring  sei> 
aration  by  some  pomt  in  consequence  of  the  construction  or 
arrangement. 

PAEENTHETICAL   EXPRESSIONS. 

§  120.  Words,  phrases,  adjuncts,  and  clauses,  arc  said  to 
be  PARENTHETICAL  when  they  are  not  essential  to  the  mean- 
ing of  a  sentence  and  are  introduced  in  such  a  icay  as  to 
break  the  connection  between  its  component  parts.  They 
are  generally  introduced  near  the  commencement  of  a  sen- 
tence, between  a  subject  and  its  verb  ;  but  they  may  occupy 
other  positions.  Every  such  parenthetical  expression  must 
be  separated  from  the  leading  proposition  by  a  conmia  be- 
fore and  after  it. 

As  these  expressions  are  of  constant  occurrence,  and  are  always 
punctuated  in  the  same  manner,  with  a  comma  on  each  side  of  them,  it 
is  important  that  the  pupil  should  be  able  to  recognize  them  without 
difficulty.  The  following  examples  contain  respectively  a  parenthetical 
word,  phrase,  adjunct,  and  clause,  printed  in  italics ;  which,  it  will  be 


§  118.  What  does  the  word  comma  menn  ?  What  decree  of  separation  docs  the 
mark  so  called  denote  ?  In  its  present  form,  when  was  the  comma  first  used  f 
Before  that  time,  what  was  employed  iu  its  stead  ? 

§  119.  Rci)eut  the  General  Rule. 

%  120.  Wlien  are  words,  phrases,  adjuncts,  and  clauses,  said  to  be  parcnrticti- 
cal  ?    Where  are  they  generally  introduced?    How  must  every  parenthetical  ex- 


Tlafc  COMMA.  l05 

eeen,  may  be  omitted  without  injury  to  the  sense,  and  stand,  iu  every 
case,  between  the  subject  and  its  verb  : — 

EXAMPLES    OF   PARENTHETICAL   EXPRESSIONS. 

1.  Napoleon,  unquestionably^  was  a  man  of  genius. 

2.  There  is,  as  it  were,  an  atmospheric  maelstrom  all  about  us. 

3.  History,  in  a  xoord,  is  replete  with  moral  lessons. 

4.  Thomson,  wlio  was  blessed  with  a  strong  and  copious  fancy^  drew  hi& 
images  from  nature  itself. 

RESTRICTIVE   EXPRESSIONS. 

§  121.  The  mere  introduction  of  adjuncts  and  clauses 
between  a  subject  and  its  verb,  does  not  make  them  paren- 
thetical. Sometimes  they  form  an  essential  part  of  the  logi- 
cal subject,  and  can  not  be  omitted  without  rendering  the 
sense  incomplete.  In  that  case,  they  are  not  parenthetical, 
but  RESTRICTIVE ;  and  there  must  be  no  comma  between 
them  and  that  which  they  restrict.  Whether  a  comma  is  to 
be  placed  after  such  restrictive  expressions,  depends  on  prin- 
ciples hereafter  explained. 

Examples  of  restrictive  adjuncts  and  clauses  are  furnished  below. 
The  pupil  is  requested  to  compare  them  carefully  with  the  examples  of 
parenthetical  expressions  just  given,  and  to*  make  himself  so  familiar 
with  their  distinguishing  features  that  he  can  at  once  determine  to 
which  of  the  two  classes  any  given  adjunct  or  clause  belongs.  Few 
sentences  occur  without  expressions  of  this  kind ;  and,  as  they  must 
have  a  comma  on  each  side  of  them  if  parenthetical,  but  none  before 
them  if  restrictive,  constant  mistakes  will  be  made  unless  the  distinction 
is  thoroughly  understood.  The  criterion  is,  will  the  meaning  of  the 
tfientence  be  preserved  if  the  expression  is  omitted  ?  If  so,  it  is  paren- 
thetical ;  if  not,  restrictive. 

EXAMPLES   OF   RESTRICTIVE   EXPRESSIONS. 

1.  The  love  of  money  is  the  root  of  all  evil. 

A  bird  in  the  Jiand  is  worth  two  in  the  bush. 

2.  A  man  tormented  by  a  guilty  conscience  can  not  be  happy. 
Those  who  sleep  late  lose  the  best  part  of  the  day. 

pression  be  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  ?    Give  examples,  and  show  in 
each  case  how  you  know  the  expression  to  be  parenthetical. 

§  121.  Besides  its  position,  what  is  necessary  to  make  an  expression  paren- 
thetical ?  When  are  afljuncts  and  clauses  called  restrictive  ?  From  what  must  re- 
strictive adjuncts  and  clauses  not  be  cut  off  by  the  comma  ?  What  is  the  criterion 
for  determining  whether  a  sentence  is  ])arenthetical  or  restrictive  ?  Give  ex- 
umples,  and  show  in  each  case  how  you  know  the  expression  to  b'c  restrictive. 


106  THE   COMMA. 

RULE    L — PARENTHETICAL  EXPRESSIONS. 

§  122.  A  comma  must  be  placed  before  and  after  every 
parenthetical  word,  phrase,  adjunct,  clause,  and  expression ; 
see  the  examples  in  §  120. 

The  words  referred  to  in  this  rule  are  chiefly  conjunctions  and  ad- 
verbs.   Those  of  most  frequent  occurrence  are  as  follows : — 
Too,  moreover,  apparently, 

also,  likewise,  meanwhile, 

^  then,  however,  consequently, 

surely,  finally,  unquestionably, 

indeed,  namely,  accordingly, 

perhaps,  therefore,  notwithstanding. 

The  phrases  most  frequently  used  parenthetically  are  as  follows : — 
In  truth,  in  reality,  as  a  matter  of  course, 

in  fact,  no  doubt,  at  all  events, 

in  fine,  of  course,  to  be  brief, 

in  short,  above  all,  to  be  sure, 

in  general,  generally  speaking,     on  the  contrary, 

in  particular,  as  it  were,  now  and  thou. 

The  most  common  parenthetical  adjuncts  arc  these : — 
Without  doubt,  in  the  first  place,         by  chance, 

without  question,         in  the  mean  time,        in  that  case, 
beyond  a  doubt,  in  a  word,  for  the  most  part, 

beyond  question,         in  a  measure,  on  the  other  hand. 

Any  of  the  clauses  enumerated  in  §  43  may  be  used  parenthetically. 
§123.  A  comma  must  be  placed  before  and  after  parenthetical  sub- 
jects introduced  by  as  well  as  ;  as,  "  Industry,  as  well  as  genius,  is  es- 
sential to  the  production  of  great  works." — "  Printing,  as  well  as  every 
other  important  invention,  has  wrought  great  changes  in  the  world." 

§  124.  A  comma  must  bo  placed  on  each  side  of  negative  adjuncts 
and  clauses,  when  introduced  parenthetically  by  way  of  contrast  or  op- 
position ;  as,  "  Prosperity  is  secured  to  a  state,  not  by  the  acquisition  of 
territory  or  riches,  but  by  the  encouragement  of  industry  and  the  dis- 
semination of  virtuous  principles." 

§  122.  Repeat  Rule  I.  What  parts  of  speech,  for  tbo  most  part,  arc  the  words 
hero  referred  to  ?  Enumerate  some  of  the  principal.  Mention  the  phrases  most 
frequently  introduced  parenthetically.  Give  some  of  the  commonest  parcutheti- 
eal  adjuncts.    What  clauses  may  bo  used  parenthetically  ? 

§  123.  Wliat  subjects  arc  introduced  parenthetically,  and  fall  under  this  role  ? 

S 124.  Btate«tbs  principle  that  applies  to  negative  adjuncts  aud  clauses.  What 


THE  co:m]via.  107 

If,  however,  the  word  expressing  negation  is  removed  from  the  ad- 
junct or  clause  in  question  and  joined  to  the  leading  verb,  one  comma 
only  must  be  used,  and  that  before  the  conjunction  which  introduces  the 
last  of  the  contrasted  expressions ;  as,  "  Prosperity  is  not  secured  to  a 
state  by  the  acquisition  of  territory  or  riches,  but  by  the  encouragement 
of  industry  and  the  dissemination  of  virtuous  principles." 

If  the  parts  of  the  sentence  are  inverted,  so  that  the  clauses  or  ad- 
juncts are  brought  before  the  leading  verb  with  the  introductory  words 
U  is,  then  the  clause  or  adjunct  introduced  by  the  conjunction  receives  the 
commas,  one  on  each  side ;  as,  "  It  is  not  by  the  acquisition  of  territory 
or  riches,  but  by  the  encouragement  of  industry  and  the  dissemination 
of  virtuous  principles,  that  prosperity  is  secured  to  a  state." 

§  125.  Some  are  in  the  habit  of  omitting  the  comma  before  a  paren- 
thetical expression  when  it  follows  a  conjunction.  This  is  wrong ;  there, 
as  in  every  other  position,  it  must  be  cut  off  by  a  comma  on  each  side : 
as,  "  Your  manners  are  affable,  and,  for  the  most  part,  pleasing." 

§  126.  Observe,  with  regard  to  the  words  referred  to  in  Rule  I.,  that 
it  is  only  when  they  belong  to  the  whole  proposition,  and  not  to  individ- 
ual words,  that  they  are  thus  cut  off  by  commas.  A  few  examples,  which 
the  pupil  is  requested  to  compare,  will  illustrate  this  difference. 

Examples. — The  passions  of  mankind,  however,  frequently  blind  them. 
However  fairly  a  bad  man  may  appear  to  act,  we  distrust  him. — Is  it, 
then,  to  be  supposed  that  vice  will  ultimately  triumph  ? — We  then  pro- 
ceeded on  our  way. — I  would,  too,  present  the  subject  in  another  point 
of  view. — It  rains  too  hard  to  venture  out. 

EXERCISE. 

Supply  the  commas  omitted  in  the  following  sentences, 

remembering  that  none  must  be  introduced  unless  required 

by  a  positive  rule : — 

Under  §  122.  Nothing  on  earth  I  tell  you  can  persuade  me  to  such 
a  step. — There  is  it  must  be  admitted  something  attractive  in  such 
dreamy  speculations. — Nothing  in  my  opinion  is  more  prejudicial  to  the 
interests  of  a  nation  than  unsettled  and  varying  policy. — The  fundamental 
principles  of  science  at  least  those  that  were  abstract  rather  than  practi- 
cal were  deposited  during  the  Middle  Ages  in  the  dead  languages. — A 

change  in  the  punctoation  must  be  made,  if  the  word  expressing  negation  is  re- 
moved from  the  adjunct  or  clause  and  joined  to  the  leading  verb  ?  What  is  the 
proper  mode  of  pointing,  when  the  parts  of  the  sentence  are  inverted,  and  the 
introductory  words  it  is  are  employed  ? 

§  125.  In  what  case  are  some  in  the  habit  of  omitting  the  comma  before  a  par- 
enthetical expression  ?    Is  this  right  ? 

§  136.  In  what  case  only  are  the  words  referred  to  in  Rule  I.  cut  off  by  commas  ? 


108  THE  COMltA. 

whifF  of  tobacco  smoke  strange  as  it  may  appear  gives  among  these  bar- 
barous tribes  not  merely  a  binding  force  but  an  inviolable  sanctity  to 
treaties. — This  added  to  other  considerations  will  prevent  me  from  coming. 

Under  §  123.  Nations  as  well  as  men  fail  in  nothing  which  they 
boldly  attempt. — The  unprincipled  politician  like  the  chameleon  is  con- 
stantly changing  his  color. — Marie  Antoinette  unlike  most  regal  person- 
ages was  extremely  affable  in  her  manners, — The  insect  aa  well  as  the 
man  that  treads  upon  it  has  an  office  to  perform. — Dangerous  as  well  as 
degrading  are  the  promptings  of  pride. — Printing  like  every  other  impor- 
tant invention  has  wrought  great  changes  in  the  world. 

Under  §  124.  This  principle  has  been  fully  settled  not  by  any  single 
act  but  by  the  repeated  and  deliberate  declarations  of  government. — Songs 
not  of  merriment  and  revelry  but  of  praise  and  thanksgiving  were  heard 
ascending. — A  great  political  crisis  is  the  time  not  for  tardy  consultation 
but  for  prompt  and  vigorous  action. — A  great  political  crisis  is  not  the 
time  for  tardy  consultation  but  for  prompt  and  vigorous  action. — It  is  not 
tardy  consultation  but  prompt  and  vigorous  action  that  a  great  political 
crisis  requires. — Juries  not  judges  are  responsible  for  these  evils. — Not  for 
his  own  glory  but  for  his  country's  preservation  did  Washington  take  the 
field. — It  was  not  in  the  hope  of  personal  aggrandizement  that  our  fore- 
fathers embarked  in  the  revolutionary  struggle  but  to  secure  for  them- 
selves  and  their  posterity  that  without  which  they  felt  life  was  valueless. 

Under  §  125.  Milton  was  like  Dante  a  statesman  and  a  lover;  and 
like  Dante  he  had  been  unfortunate  in  ambition  and  in  love. — We  may 
])erhai)S  find  it  difficult  to  admire  Queen  Elizabeth  as  a  woman;  but 
without  doubt  as  a  sovereign  she  deserves  our  highest  respect.  She  soon 
if  we  may  believe  contemporaneous  historians  gained  incredible  influence 
with  her  people ;  and  while  she  merited  all  their  esteem  by  her  real  vir- 
tues she  also  engaged  their  affections  by  her  pretended  ones. 

Under  §  126.  There  were  besides  several  other  considerations  which 
led  Columbus  to  believe  that  the  earth  was  round. — There  are  others  be- 
sides its  soldiers  to  whom  a  state  should  show  its  gratitude. — Now  from 
this  I  would  argue  that  all  violent  measures  are  at  the  present  time  inv 
politic. — Who  now  believes  in  the  divine  right  of  kings  ?— Morning  will 
come  at  last  however  dark  the  night  may  be. — (^alileo  however  was  con- 
vinced of  the  truth  of  his  theory,  and  therefore  persisted  in  maintaining 
it  even  at  the  risk  of  imprisonment  and  death,  fin  the  last  sentence^ 
therefore  does  not  break  the  connection  suQicicntly  to  be  set  off  by 
commas.] 


LESSON    XXI. 

THE    COMMA     (continued). 
RULE   II. — CLAUSES,    WORDS,    PHRASES,    AND   ADJUNCTS. 

§  127.  When  clauses,  and  when  words,  phrases,  and  ad 
luncts,  that  may  be  used  parenthetically,  are  introduced  in 


THE  COMMA.  109 

Such  a  way  as  not  to  break  the  connection  between  depend- 
ent parts,  they  are  cut  off  by  but  one  comma,  which  comes 
after  them  if  they  commence  the  sentence,  but  before  them 
if  they  end  it ;  as,  "  Unquestionably,  Napoleon  was  a  man 
of  genius." — "  Generally  spealdng,  an  indolent  person  is  un- 
happy."— "  This  is  the  case,  beyond  a  doubt." — "  See  the 
hollowness  of  thy  pretensions,  O  worshipper  of  reason." 

Observe,  however,  that  such  expressions  as  are  restrictive  do  not  fall 
under  this  rule. 

§  128.  A  comma  must  also  be  placed  after  the  following  and  similar 
words,  which  are  rarely,  and  some  of  them  never,  used  parenthetically, 
when  they  stand  at  the  commencement  of  sentences,  and  refer,  not  to  any 
particular  word,  but  to  the  proposition  as  a  whole : —  _ 

Again,  yes,  now,  first, 

further,  no,  why,  secondly, 

howbeit,  nay,  well,  thirdly,  &c. 

As,  "  Yes,  the  appointed  time  has  come." — "  Why,  this  is  rank  in. 
justice." — "  Well,  follow  the  dictates  of  your  inclination." 

§  129.  A  comma  must  be  placed  after  here  and  therc^  now  and  tJien^ 
when  they  introduce  contrasted  clauses  or  members ;  as,  "  Here,  every 
citizen  enjoys  the  blessings  of  personal  freedom  ;  there,  despotism  forges 
fetters  for  thought,  word,  and  action." 

§  130.  The  comma  may  be  omitted  in  the  case  of  too^  also,  therefore, 
and  perhaps,  when  introduced  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  harmonious 
flow  of  the  period,  and,  particularly,  when  the  sentence  is  short ;  as, 
"  Industry  gains  respect  and  riches  too." — "  He  delivered  a  lecture  on 
Monday  evening  also." — "  Perhaps  they  are  safe." 

§  131.  In  the  case  of  adjuncts  immediately  following  a  verb,  the  con- 
nection  is  often  so  close  that  a  comma  is  inadmissible ;  as,  "  I  did  it 
with  my  own  hand." 

§  132.  Adverbial,  adjective,  and  hypothetical  clauses,  if  very  short, 


§  127.  Repeat  Rule  II.    What  expressions  do  not  fall  under  this  rule  ? 

§  128.  What  other  words,  rarely  used  parenthetically,  take  a  comma  after 
them  when  they  stand  at  the  commencement  of  sentences  ? 

§  129.  State  the  rule  relating  to  here  and  tJiere^  now  and  tlien. 

§  180.  In  the  case  of  what  words  may  the  comma  be^  omitted  ? 

§  131.  What  is  said  of  the  connection  in  the  case  of  adjuncts  Immediately 
following  a  verb  ? 

%  132.  When  may  adverbial,  adjective,  and  hypothetical  clauses  be  used  with* 
out  the  comma  ? 


110 


THE  COMMA. 


closely  connected,  and  introdaccd  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  harmo- 
nious flow  of  the  sentence,  need  not  be  cut  off  by  the  comma;  as,  "I 
began  this  work  two  years  ago  at  Rome." 

§  133.  A  participial  clause  that  relates  to,  and  immediately  follows, 
the  object  of  a  verb,  must  not  be  separated  from  it ;  as,  "  We  see  our 
companions  borne  daily  to  the  grave." 

§  134.  Clauses  that  would  otherwise  be  set  off  by  the  comma,  if  subdi- 
vided into  parts  which  require  the  use  of  this  point,  must  be  separated  by 
the  semicolon,  according  to  the  rule  in  §  112,  where  an  example  is  given. 

RULE   m. — KESTEICnVE   ADJUNCTS   AND   CLAUSES. 

§  135.  No  comma  must  be  placed  between  restrictive  ad- 
juncts or  clauses  (see  §  121)  and  that  which  they  restrict ;  as, 
"  The  eye  of  Providence  is  constantly  upon  us." — "  Who  can 
respect  a  man  that  is  not  governed  by  virtuous  principles  ?  " 

Vocative  and  causal  clauses  (see  §  43)  are  never  restrictive,  and  must 
therefore  be  set  off  by  the  comma. 

§  136.  Relative  clauses  introduced  by  the  pronoun  iliat,  as  well  as 
those  in  which  the  relative  is  not  expressed,  are  restrictive,  and  must 
have  no  comma  before  them  ;  as,  "  Suspect  the  man  that  can  not  look 
you  in  the  eye." — "  The  day  we  celebrate  is  one  of  the  proudest  in  our 
national  history." 

§  137.  A  restrictive  clause,  however,  must  be  set  off  by  a  comma, 
when  it  refers  to  several  antecedents  which  are  themselves  separated  by 
that  point ;  as,  "  There  are  many  painters,  poets,  and  statesmen,  whom 
chance  has  rendered  famous  rather  than  merit." 

§  138.  A  rule  of  syntax  requires  that  a  restrictive  clause  should 
stand  immediately  after  its  logical  antecedent ;  if,  however,  a  sentence  is 
so  loosely  constructed  as  to  have  other  words  intervene  between  the  an 
teccdent  and  the  restrictive  clause,  a  comma  should  be  placed  before  tli. 

§  183.  In  what  case  may  the  comma  bo  omitted  before  a  participial  claugo? 

§  134.  In  what  case  does  the  Bcmicolon  take  the  place  of  the  comma  between 
clauses  ? 

§  185.  Repeat  Rnlo  III.,  rcspectlnp:  restrictive  adjuncts  and  clauses.  What 
clauses  are  never  restrictive  ?    How  must  they,  therefore,  be  set  off? 

§  136.  What  relative  clauses  are  restrictive,  and  must  therefore  have  no  comma 
before  them  ? 

§  137.  In  what  case  must  a  restrictive  clanso  be  set  off  by  a  comma  ? 

§  138.  What  is  the  i^ropcr  position  for  a  restrictive  clause  ?  If  other  wonlt» 
are  introduced  between  the  clause  and  its  antecedent,  what  change  mast  be  made 
in  the  punctuation  ? 


THE   COMMA.  Ill 

latter ;  as,  "  He  can  have  no  genuine  sympathy  for  the  unfortunate, 
that  has  never  been  unfortunate  himself."  With  its  parts  correctly  ar- 
ranged, this  sentence  requires  no  point ;  as,  "  He  that  has  never  been 
unfortunate  himself  can  have  no  genuine  sympathy  for  the  unfortunate." 

§  139.  When  there  is  a  succession  of  restrictive  clauses  relating  to 
the  same  antecedent,  they  are  separated  from  each  other  by  commas,  and 
the  first  must  be  set  off  from  the  antecedent  by  the  same  point ;  as, 
"  Countries,  whose  rules  are  prompt  and  decisive,  whose  people  arc 
united,  and  whose  course  is  just,  have  little  to  fear,  even  from  more 
powerful  nations." 

§  140.  A  comma  is  also  generally  placed  before  a  restrictive  clause 
containing  of  which,  to  which,  or  for  which,  preceded  by  a  noun ;  as, 
"  We  have  no  sense  or  faculty,  the  use  of  which  is  not  obvious  to  the  re- 
flecting mind." 

§  141.  A  participial  clause  is  restrictive  when  the  participle  it  con- 
tains can  be  exchanged  for  the  relative  that  and  a  finite  verb  without  in- 
jury to  the  sense.  "  A  man  discharging  his  duty  under  trying  circum- 
stances is  worthy  of  our  confidence ;  "  here,  discharging  is  equivalent  to 
that  discharges,  and  the  clause  is  restrictive.  In  such  a  case,  no  comma 
must  separate  the  clause  from  the  antecedent,  unless  the  principle  em- 
bodied in  §  137  applies. 

EXERCISE. 

In  the  following  sentences,  insert  commas  wherever  re- 
quired by  rule : — 

Under  §  127.  But  for  this  event  the  future  liberator  of  Rome  might 
have  been  a  dreamer. — Thou  sayest  right  barbarian. — Great  poet  as 
Petrarch  is  he  has  often  mistaken  pedantry  for  passion. — ^When  a  peo- 
ple suffer  in  vain  it  is  their  own  fault. — Happier  had  it  been  for  many 
had  they  never  looked  out  from  their  own  heart  upon  the  world. — 
What  are  good  laws  if  we  have  not  good  men  to  execute  them  ? — 
Low  though  the  voice  the  boast  was  heard  by  all  around. — Amazed  at 
what  had  taken  place  the  barons  mechanically  bent  the  knee. — Im- 
patient to  finish  what  he  had  begun  Cassar  allowing  his  army  no 
rest  pushed  forward  to  the  capital. — Though  neither  honest  nor  elo- 
quent the  demagogue  often  controls  the  people. — To  say  the  truth  it 
was  a  goodly  company. — From  this  time  forth  no  sound  of  merriment 

§  139.  State  the  principle  that  applies  to  a  succession  of  restrictive  relative 
clauses  relating  to  the  same  antecedent. 

§  140.  What  is  said  of  restrictive  clauses  containing  of  which,  «&c.,  preceded 
by  d  noun  ? 

§  141.  When  is  a  participial  clause  restrictive  ?  In  such  a  case,  must  it  ba 
eeparated  from  its  antecedent  ? 


112  THE  COMMA. 

was  ever  heard  in  those  lordly  halls  ;  on  the  contrary  silence  and  gtoort 
hung  over  them  like  a  pall. — Xovertheless  though  you  have  wronged  me 
thus  I  inflict  no  vengeance. — When  I  became  a  man  I  laid  aside  childish 
things. — Are  ye  bewildered  still  0  Romans  ? 

Under  §  128.  Well  honor  is  the  sulyect  of  my  story. — Yes  it  often 
happens  that  when  we  get  out  of  the  reach  of  want  we  are  just  within 
the  reach  of  avarice. — Again  one  man's  loss  is  sometimes  another  man's 
gain. — Verily  this  is  a  troublous  world. — Furthermore  we  are  always 
suspicious  of  a  deceitful  man's  motives. — Xay  though  the  whole  world 
should  do  wrong  this  is  no  excuse  for  our  offences. — First  let  us  look  at 
the  facts. 

Under  §  129.  Then  the  world  listened  with  pleasure  to  the  rude 
strains  of  the  troubadour ;  now  the  divine  thoughts  of  the  most  gifted 
geniuses  can  hardly  command  its  attention. — Here  we  have  troubles, 
pains,  and  partings  ;  there  we  are  allowed  to  look  for  an  unbroken  rest 
the  elevated  pleasures  of  which  (see  §  140)  no  heart  can  conceive. 

Under  §  130.  Perhaps  there  is  no  man  so  utterly  unhappy  as  the 
useless  drone. — I  have  seen  this,  and  can  therefore  describe  it  with  ac- 
curacy.— Pythagoras  made  many  discoveries  in  geometry  and  astrono- 
my also. — I  can  give  you  some  information  on  the  subject  being  a 
farmer  and  a  practical  one  too. — I  was  also  there ;  you  are  therefore 
mistaken. 

Under  §  131.  The  love  of  life  is  deeply  implanted  in  the  human 
heart. — To  sum  the  matter  up  in  a  few  words  his  hand  is  against  every 
man's. — A  tree  is  known  by  its  fruits. — Banished  from  his  native  country 
^schines  retired  to  Rhodes  where  he  opened  a  school  of  oratory  that  be- 
came famous  throughout  all  Greece. 

The  golden  wain  rolls  round  the  silent  North, 

And  earth  is  slumbering  'neath  the  smiles  of  heaven. 

Under  §  132.  You  may  go  if  you  wish. — We  frequently  meet  ene- 
mies where  we  expect  friends. — Columbus  maintained  his  theory  with  a 
confidence  which  went  far  towards  convincing  his  hearers. — All  these 
things  will  have  passed  away  a  hundred  years  hence. — Satan  goes  about 
like  a  roaring  lion  seeking  whom  he  may  devour. 

Under  §  1 33.  How  many  have  seen  their  affection  slighted  and  even 
betrayed  by  the  ungrateful ! — We  hear  the  good  slandered  every  day. — 
Alexander  the  Great  had  a  large  city  built  in  honor  of  his  favorite 
horse. 

Under  §  134.  During  the  fourteenth  century  Italy  was  the  India  of 
A  vast  numl)er  of  well-born  but  penniless  adventurers  who  had  inflamed 
their  imaginations  by  the  ballads  and  legends  of  chivalry  who  from  youth 
had  trained  themselves  to  manage  the  barb,  and  boar  alike  through  sum- 
mer's heat  and  winter's  cold  the  weight  of  arms  and  who  passing  into  an 
effeminate  and  distracted  land  had  only  to  exhibit  bravery  in  order  to 
command  wealth. 

Under  §  135.  The  (juality  of  mercy  is  not  strained. — How  soft  the 
music  of  those  village  bells ! — Good  nature  is  a  sun  which  sheds  light 
on  all  around. — He  who  is  a  traitor  to  his  country  is  a  serpent  which 
turns  to  bite  the  bosom  that  warms  it. — Mahomet  always  observed  the 
forms  of  that  gravo  and  ceremonious  politeness  so  common  in  bis  couutr/. 


THE  COMirA.  113 

Under  §  136.  Is  there  a  heart  that  music  can  not  melt  ? — Anger  is  a 
fire  that  consumes  the  heart. — The  evil  that  men  do,  lives  after  them. — 
The  land  we  live  in  is  on  many  accounts  bound  to  our  hearts  by  the 
strongest  ties. — Men  are  willing  for  the  most  part  to  overlook  the  faults 
of  those  they  love. 

Under  §  137.  There  was  no  man,  woman,  or  child  that  the  tyrant 
Nero  did  not  heartily  hate. — The  profligate  man  is  a  stranger  to  the  in- 
nocent social  enjoj-ments,  the  gushing  affections,  and  sacred  domestic 
pleasures  which  to  the  virtuous  constitute  a  never-failing  source  of  satis- 
laction  and  contentment. — The  Lydians,  the  Persians,  and  the  Arabians 
that  wish  to  leave  the  army,  are  at  liberty  to  do  so. 

Under  §  138.  An  author  can  not  be  readily  understood  who  is  unac- 
quainted with  the  art  of  punctuation. — All  is  not  gold  that  glitters. — 
Clauses  must  be  set  off  by  commas  which  are  introduced  parenthetically. 
— That  man  is  not  fit  to  be  the  head  of  a  nation  who  prides  himself  on 
being  the  head  of  a  party.  {Punctuate  the  sentences  in  this  paragraph 
C5  they  stand ;  then  arrange  them  in  their  proper  order,  and  point  thcra 
accordingly.) 

UxVDER  §  139.  We  should  have  respect  for  the  theories  of  a  philoso- 
pher whose  judgment  is  clear,  whose  learning  is  extensive,  and  whose 
reasonings  are  founded  on  facts  even  though  his  deductions  may  conflict 
with  generally  received  opinions. 

Under  §  140.  Have  no  desire  for  a  reputation  the  acquisition  of 
which  involves  dishonesty  or  deceit. — The  barometer  is  an  instrument 
the  usefulness  of  Avhich  to  the  navigator  can  hardly  be  overestimated. — 
All  physicians  tell  us  that  dyspepsia  is  a  disease  the  remedy  for  which 
it  is  hard  to  find. — Napoleon  had  from  youth  fixed  his  eyes  on  a  pinnacle 
of  greatness  the  path  to  which  he  knew  was  filled  with  tremendous 
obstacles. 

Under  §  141.  Those  distinguished  for  honesty  and  activity  rarely  if 
ever  in  this  land  of  business  energy  lack  employment. — This  M'as  to  be 
expected  in  a  country  overrun  with  disbanded  soldiers  whose  only  means 
of  subsistence  were  theft  and  violence. — No  person  found  guilty  of  felony 
is  allowed  to  hold  office. — We  can  not  too  much  pity  the  lot  of  a  child 
thrown  at  a  tender  age  on  the  charities  of  the  world. 


LESSON    XXII.. 

THE     COMMA     (  C  0  N  T  I  N  TJ  E  D  )  . 
RULE   IV. — APPOSITION. 

§  142.  Single  words  in  apposition  and  appositional  clauses 
must  be  set  off  by  the  comma ;   as,  "  The  fate  of  Rienzi,  the 

S 143.  Repeat  Rule  IV.,  rcepecting  words  in  apposition  and  appositional  clauses. 


114  THE  COMMA. 

last  of  the  Roman  tribunes,  shows  the  fickleness  of  an  igno- 
rant populace." — "Darius,  the  king  of  the  Persians." 

§  143.  To  this  rule  there  are  four  exceptions.    The  comma  must  bo 

omitted, 
I.  Between  a  proper  name  and  a  common  noun  placed  immediately 
before  or  after  it  without  an  adjunct ;  as,  " Darius  the  king" ;  "  tha 
Altai  Mountams  " ;  "  the  River  Rhine  ". 
II.  When  a  pronoun  other  than  /  is  in  apposition  with  a  substantive 
which  it  immediately  precedes  or  follows;  as,  "Cicero  himself"; 
"  Ye  mighty  men  of  war  ". 

III.  When  the  word  in  apposition  or  the  clause  in  question  is  necessary 
to  the  idea  predicated,  so  that  it  can  not  be  left  out  without  render- 
ing the  sense  incomplete ;  as,  "  The  people  elected  him  presidciiV^ — 
"  Ue  was  chosen  umpire." — "  I  regard  him  as  a  traiior." — "  Whom 
his  friends  considered  an  honest  man."  In  these  examples,  italics 
arc  used  to  indicate  the  words  and  clauses  in  question ;  and,  as  they 
can  not  be  omitted  without  injury  to  the  sense,  they  are  necessary 
to  the  idea  predicated,  and  must  not  be  set  off  by  the  comma. 

IV.  The  comma  is  omitted  between  the  parts  of  a  compound  proper 
name,  when  in  their  proper  order ;  as,  "  the  Rev.  Samuel  T.  Wol- 
laston  " ;  "  Marcus  Tullius  Cicero  ". 
When,  however,  the  order  is  inverted,  as  in  alphabetical  lists  of 

names,  directories,  &c.,  a  comma  must  be  inserted ;  as,  "  Home,  James 

G.  " ;  "  Lyle,  Rev.  S.  Phillips  ". 

When  a  title,  either  abbreviated  or  written  in  full,  is  annexed  to  a 

proper  name,  it  must  be  set  off  by  a  comma ;  as,  "  Robert  Horton,  M.  D., 

F.  R.  S.";  "W.  C.  Doubleday,  Esqiure". 

RULE   V. — TKANSPOSED   ADJUNCTS   AND   CLAUSES. 

§  144.  When  a  transposition  occurs,  so  that  an  adjunct  or 
a  clause  which  would  naturally  follow  a  verb  is  introduced 
before  it,  a  comma  is  generally  required  to  develop  the  sense. 

§  143.  now  many  cxccptione  arc  there  to  this  nilo  ?  Wliat  is  the  first,  relating 
to  a  proper  name  and  common  noun  ?  What  is  the  second,  relating  to  pronouns  ? 
What  Is  the  third,  rolatinfj  to  words  and  clauses  necessary  to  the  idea  predicated  ? 
What  is  the  fourth,  relating  to  compound  proper  names?  If  the  parts  of  the 
name  are  transposed,  what  stop  must  be  inserted  ?  When  a  title  is  annexed  to  a 
proper  name,  how  must  it  be  set  off? 

§  141.  Repeat  Rule  V.,  relating  to  transposed  adjuncts  and  clauses.  When 
tii«  natural  order  is  restored,  what  change  is  noceisary  in  the  punctuation  f 


THE  COMMA.  115 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  To  those  who  laboi',  sleep  is  doubly  pleasant. 

2.  Of  the  five  races,  the  Caucasian  is  the  most  enlightened. 

3.  To  all  such,  objections  may  be  made. 

4.  Whom  he  loveth,  he  chasteneth. 

In  the  above  examples,  we  have  a  rhetorical  arrangement ;  the  com- 
mon order  would  be  as  follows  : — "  Sleep  is  doubly  pleasant  to  those 
who  labor." — "  The  Caucasian  is  the  most  enlightened  of  the  five  races," 
&c.  As  just  written,  it  will  be  seen  that  these  sentences  require  no 
comma. 

§  145,  The  comma  must  be  omitted  in  the  following  cases : — 
I.  When  the  transposed  adjunct  is  short  and  closely  connected  with 
the  verb ;  as,  "  With  this  I  am  satisfied."     If,  however,  there  is 
danger  of  a  reader's  mistaking  the  sense,  as  in  the  third  example 
under  §  144,  a  comma  must  be  placed  after  the  adjunct. 
II.  When  the  transposed  adjunct  or  clause  is  introduced  by  It  is  ;  as, 
"  It  is  chiefly  through  books  that  we  hold  intercourse  with  supe- 
rior minds." 
III.  When  a  verb  preceding  its  nominative  comes  immediately  after  the 
transposed  adjunct  or  clause ;  as,  "  Down  from  this  towering  peak 
poured  a  roaring  torrent." 
IV.  When  the  transposition  consists  in  placing  an  objective  case  with 
or  without  limiting  words  immediately  before  the  verb  that  governs 
it ;  as,  "  Silver  and  gold  have  I  none." 

RULE    VI. — LOGICAL   SUBJECT. 

§  146.  A  comma  must  be  placed  after  the  logical  subject 
of  a  sentence  (see  §  40)  when  it  ends  with  a  verb,  or  when 
it  consists  of  several  parts  which  are  themselves  separated  by 
commas ;  as,  "  Those  wJio  persevere^  succeed." — "  The  world 
of  Qf^y^iy^  of  temptation^  and  of  pleasure,  allures  thee." 

The  object  of  this  rule  is  to  enable  the  eye  readily  to  perceive  what 
the  logical  subject  is.  In  the  last  example,  if  the  comma  after  pleasure 
were  omitted,  a  false  impression  would  be  conveyed,  as  it  would  seem 
that  the  words  and  of  pleasure  were  more  closely  connected  with  the  verb 
allures  than  the  rest  of  the  subject, — which  is  not  the  case. 

§  145.  Li  what  four  cases  may  the  comiaa  be  omitted  in  the  case  of  transposed 
adjuncts  and  clauses  ? 

§  146.  What  is  meant  by  the  logical  subject  of  a  sentence  ?  Repeat  Rule  VI., 
relating  to  logical  subjects.    What  is  the  object  of  this  rule  ? 


116  THE  COMMA. 

§  147.  A  comma  riftcr  the  logical  subject  is,  also,  sometimes  neces- 
sary to  prevent  ambiguity.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  He  who  pursues 
pleasure  only  defeats  the  object  of  his  creation,"  it  is  impossible  to  tell 
whether  only  modifies  pleasure  or  defcais.  If  the  meaning  is  that  "  he 
>vho  pursues  nothing  but  pleasure  defeats,  &c.,"  a  comma  should  be  in- 
serted after  only  ;  if  not,  we  should  have  one  after  pleasure.  The  reader 
should  not  be  left  in  doubt. 

§  148.  A  comma,  followed  by  a  dash,  is  generally  placed  after  a  logi- 
cal subject  when  it  consists  of  several  particulars  separated  by  semico- 
lons, or  by  commas,  when,  for  the  sake  of  greater  definiteness,  the  words 
all,  these,  all  these,  such,  or  the  like,  referring  to  the  particulars  before 
enumerated,  are  introduced  as  the  immediate  subject  of  the  verb ;  as, 
"  To  be  overlooked,  slighted,  and  neglected ;  to  be  misunderstood,  mis- 
represented, and  slandered ;  to  be  trampled  under  foot  by  the  envious, 
the  ignorant,  and  the  vile  ;  to  be  crushed  by  foes,  and  to  be  distrusted 
and  betrayed  even  by  friends, — such  is  too  often  the  fate  of  genius." 

RULE   VII. — ABSOLUTE   WORDS   AND   CLAUSES. 

§  149.  Absolute  participial  clauses,  and  substantives  in 
the  nominative  absolute  with  their  adjuncts  and  limiting 
words,  must  be  set  off  by  the  comma;  as,  "  J?om6  having 
fallen,  the  world  relapsed  into  barbarism." — "  Ills  conduct 
071  this  occasio9i,  how  disgraceful  it  was ! " — "  Yes,  5jV." — 
"  And  thou  too,  Brutus  !  " 

Some  absolute  participial  clauses  have  the  participle  understood,  but 
must,  notwithstanding,  be  punctuated  according  to  the  above  rule. 
Thus,  in  the  following  lines,  though  being  is  left  out  after  steeds  and  /or, 
the  clauses  must  be  set  oflf  by  the  comma : — 

"  Winged  with  his  fears,  on  foot  he  strove  to  fly, 
His  steeds  too  distant,  and  the  foe  too  nigh." 

§  150.  The  second  example  under  Rule  VII.  illustrates  a  construc- 
tion admissible  in  poetry,  but  not  to  be  imitated  in  prose.  It  should 
read,  "  How  disgraceful  was  his  conduct  on  this  occasion  ! "  As  originally 
given,  it  may  be  punctuated  with  cither  a  comma  or  a  dash  after  occasion. 

%  147.  On  what  other  account  is  a  comma  sometimeei  necessary  after  the  logi- 
cal subject  ?    Illuetrate  this,  and  show  how  a  comma  prevents  ambijxuity. 

8  148.  In  what  case  ie  a  comma  followed  by  a  dush  placed  after  a  lojrical  subject  ? 

5  149.  Repent  Rule  VII.,  relating?  to  absolute  words  and  clauses.  What  Is  some- 
times omitted  from  a  participial  clause  ?  Docs  thi."  chnnjre  the  mode  of  pnnctuatin;^? 

S  150.  What  ift  tUo  second  example  in  $  149  ?  What  is  said  respecting  eucli 
constructions  ? 


THE  COMMA.  117 


EXERCISE. 

Insert  in  the  following  sentences  whatever  points  are  re- 
quired by  the  rules  that  have  been  gixim : — 

Under  §  142.  Mahomet  left  Mecca  a  wretched  fugitive  he  returned 
a  merciless  conqueror — A  professed  Catholic  he  imprisoned  the  Pope  a 
pretended  patriot  he  impoverished  the  country — The  Scriptures  those 
lively  oracles  of  God  contain  the  only  authentic  records  of  primeval 
ages — I  Nebuchadnezzar  king  of  the  Jews  make  this  decree — Aristides 
the  just  Athenian  is  one  of  the  noblest  characters  in  Grecian  history — 
Richard  I  the  Lion-hearted — Charles  the  Bald  king  of  France — We  saw 
him  tyrant  of  the  East 

Under  §  143.  The  River  Volga  and  the  Ural  Mountains  form  accord- 
ing to  some  geographers  the  boundary  between  Asia  and  Europe — We 
humble  men  may  admire  the  great  if  .ve  can  not  equal  them — John 
Howard  Payne  the  author  of  "  Home,  sweet  home  "  and  Samuel  Wood- 
worth  who  composed  "The  old  oaken  bucket"  occupy  a  prominent  place 
among  American  poets — It  has  been  said  that  if  all  the  learned  and 
scientific  men  of  every  age  could  meet  in  a  deliberative  assemTaly  they 
Tvould  choose  Sir  Isaac  Newton  for  their  president — With  modesty  your 
guide,  reason  your  adviser,  and  truth  your  controlling  principle,  you 
will  rarely  have  reason  to  be  ashamed  of  your  conduct — Herodotus  is 
called  the  father  of  profane  history — These  grumblers  would  not  have 
considered  Ca3sar  himself  a  good  general — Henry  F.  Witherspoon  junior 
LL  D 

Under  §  144.  At  the  talents  and  virtues  of  all  who  hold  diiferent 
views  from  their  own  certain  partisan  writers  are  accustomed  to  sneer — 
Of  all  the  passions  vanity  is  the  most  unsocial — To  love  many  a  soldier 
on  the  point  of  realizing  his  dreams  of  glory  sacrifices  the  opportunity 
of  so  doing — Whether  such  a  person  as  Homer  ever  existed  we  can  not 
say — How  the  old  magicians  performed  their  miracles  it  is  difficult  to 
explain — That  riches  are  to  be  preferred  to  wisdom  no  one  will  openly 
assert 

Under  §  145.  With  a  crash  fell  the  severed  gates — On  me  devolves 
the  unpleasant  task — In  memory's  twilight  bowers  the  mind  loves  to 
dwell — It  is  only  by  constant  effort  that  men  succeed  in  great  under- 
takings— To  the  poor  we  should  be  charitable — To  the  poor  men  should 
be  charitable — History  we  read  daily — At  the  bottom  of  the  hill  ran  a 
little  stream — In  Plato's  garden  congregated  a  crowd  of  admiring  pupils — 
Respecting  the  early  history  of  Egypt  little  is  known — Equivocation  I 
despise  truth  and  honor  I  respect — It  is  chiefly  by  constant  practice  and 
close  attention  to  correct  models  that  one  learns  to  compose  with  ease 
and  elegance — This  he  denied 

Under  §  146.  The  miracles  that  Moses  performed  may  have  con- 
vinced Pharaoh  but  at  first  they  humbled  not  his  pride — Every  impure, 
angry,  revengeful,  and  envious  thought  is  a  violation  of  duty— The  evil 
that  men  do  lives  after  them — Whatever  breathes  lives — The  boldness 
of  these  predictions,  the  apparent  proximity  of  their  fulfilment,  and 
the  imposing  oratory  of  the  preacher  struck  awe  into  the  hearts  of  his 


118  THE   COMJtfA. 

audience — Spring,  Summer,  Autumn,  and  Winter  have  each  Its  office  to 
perform 

Under  §  14Y.  He  who  stands  on  etiquette  merely  shows  his  own 
littleness — To  become  conversant  with  a  single  department  of  literature 
only  has  a  tendency  to  make  our  views  narrow  and  our  impressions  in- 
correct— To  remain  in  one  spot  always  prevents  the  mind  from  taking 
comprehensive  views  of  things 

Under  §  148.  The  solemn  circle  round  the  death-bed  the  stifled 
grief  of  heart-broken  friends  their  watchful  assiduities  and  touching  ten. 
derness  the  last  testimonies  of  expiring  love  the  feeble,  fluttering,  pres. 
Bure  of  the  hand  the  last  fond  look  of  the  glazing  eye  tummg  upon  us 
even  from  the  threshold  of  existence  the  faltering  accents  struggling  in 
death  to  give  one  more  assurance  of  affection  all  these  recollections  rush 
into  our  mind  as  we  stand  by  the  grave  of  those  we  loved 

Under  §  149.  Whose  gray  top  shall  tremble  he  descending — The 
baptism  of  John  was  it  from  Heaven  or  of  men — This  point  afinitted 
we  proceed  to  the  next  division  of  our  subject — The  boy  oh  where  was 
he — This  said  He  formed  thee  Adam  thee  0  man — Man  to  man  steel  to 
steel  they  met  their  enemy — Shame  being  lost  all  virtue  is  lost — Their 
countenances  expressive  of  deep  humiliation  they  entered  the  palace — O 
wretched  we  devoid  of  hope  and  comfort — That  man  of  sorrow  oh  how 
changed  he  was  to  those  who  now  beheld  him — The  conquest  of  Spain 
their  object  they  left  no  means  untried  for  effecting  a  landing  on  the 
Peninsula — Honor  once  lost  life  is  worthless — I  whither  can  I  go— The 
summing  up  having  been  completed  on  both  sides  the  judge  next  pro- 
ceeded to  charge  the  jury 

Under  §  150.  Our  time  how  swiftly  it  passes  away — Her  dimples 
and  pleasant  smile  how  beautiful  they  are — My  banks  they  are  covered 
with  bees — The  companion  of  my  infancy  and  friend  of  my  riper  years 
she  has  gone  to  her  rest  and  left  me  to  deplore  my  bereavement — Earthly 
happiness  what  is  it  where  can  it  be  found — The  bride  she  smiled ;  and  the 
bride  she  blushed  {After  punctuating  tJie  sentences  in  this  paragraph,  as 
ilwj  stand,  give  them  tlw  tmtat prose  construction  andpunctttate  accordingly.) 


LESSON   XXIII. 

THE      COMMA      (CONTINUED). 

RULE  Vm. — snoET  members. 

§  151.  A  COMMA  must  be  placed  between  short  members 
of  compound  sentences,  connected  by  and,  but,  or,  nor,  for, 
because,  whereas,  that  expressing  purpose,  so  that,  in  order 
that,  and  other  conjimctions. 

§  151.  Repeat  Rule  VITI.,  relating  to  short  members.    If  the  members  are 
loug,  or  contn.ti  eubdivlelons  set  off  by  comraas,  how  must  they  bo  soparated  ? 


THE   COMMA.  119 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  Educate  men,  and  you  keep  them  from  crime. 

2.  Man  proposes,  but  God  disposes. 

3.  Be  temperate  in  youth,  or  you  will  have  to  be  abstinent  in  old  age. 

4.  Be  virtuous,  that  you  may  bo  respected. 

5.  Travelling  is  beneficial,  because  it  enlarges  our  ideas. 

6.  The  ship  of  state  is  soon  wrecked,  unless  honesty  is  at  the  helm, 
v.  Love  not  sleep,  lest  thou  come  to  poverty. 

8.  The  record  is  lost,  so  that  we  can  not  now  decide  the  point. 

If  the  members  are  long,  or  contain  subdivisions  set  off  by  commas, 
they  must  be  separated,  according  to  principles  already  laid  down,  by 
the  semicolon. 

§  152.  Observe  that  a  comma  must  not  be  placed  before  that^  when 
not  equivalent  to  in  order  that ;  nor  before  than  or  whether :  as,  "  He  said 
that  he  would  come." — "  Honest  poverty  is  better  than  fraudulent 
wealth." 

§  153.  No  comma  must  be  placed  before  lest  when  it  immediately 
follows  a  word  with  which  it  is  closely  connected  ;  as,  "  Let  those  who 
stand,  take  heed  lest  they  fall." 

RULE   IX. — COMPOUND   PEEDICATES. 

§  154.  A  comma  must  be  placed  before  and,  but,  or,  and 
7ior,  when  they  connect  parts  of  a  compound  predicate,  un- 
less these  parts  are  very  short  and  so  closely  connected  that 
no  point  is  admissible ;  as,  "  I  love  not  the  woman  that  is 
vain  of  her  beauty,  or  the  man  that  prides  himself  on  his 
wisdom." — "  We  can  neither  esteem  a  mean  man,  nor  honor 
a  deceitful  one." 

§  156.  If  the  parts  of  a  predicate  consist  of  but  two  or  three  words 
each,  construed  alike,  a  comma  is  not  necessary ;  as,  "  Pleasure  beckons 
us  and  tempts  us  to  crime." 

§  150.  A  comma  must  not  be  placed  before  and  and  or,  when  they 
connect  two  words  that  are  the  same  part  of  speech,  either  unlimited, 
or  both  limited  by  adjuncts  of   similar  construction;    as,   "Here  I 


§  152.  Before  what  conjunctions  is  it  improper  to  place  a  comma  ? 
§  153.  Before  what  conjunction  is  the  comma  generally  omitted  ? 
§  154.  Repeat  Eule  IX.,  relating  to  compound  predicates. 
§  155.  In  what  case  is  a  comma  necessaiy  between  the  parts  of  a  predicate  ? 
§  156.  State  the  principle  that  applies  to  and  and  or  connecting  two  words 
that  are  tlie  same  part  of  speecli. 


120  THE  COMMA. 

and  Sorrow  sit." — "Trust  not  an  ungrateful  son  or  a  disobedient 
daughter." 

§  15Y.  The  words,  however,  referred  to  in  the  preceding  paragraph 
must  be  separated  by  the  comma,  if  one  is  limited  by  a  word  or  words 
which  might  be  erroneously  applied  to  both ;  as,  "  I  have  seven  brave 
sons,  and  daughters." 

§  158.  A  comma  must  be  used  before  conjunctions,  when  they  con- 
nect two  words  contrasted,  or  emphatically  distinguished  from  each 
other ;  also,  before  the  adverb  not^  used  without  a  conjunction  between 
contrasted  terms ;  as,  "  Charity  both  gives,  and  forgives." — "  Liberal, 
not  lavish,  is  kind  Nature's  hand." 

RULE   X. — EQUIVALENTS. 

§  159.  A  comma  must  be  placed  before  or,  when  it  in- 
troduces an  equivalent,  an  explanatory  word,  or  a  clause  de- 
fining the  writer's  meaning ;  as,  "  Autography,  or  the  art  of 
determining  a  person's  character  from  his  handwriting,  is 
coming  into  vogue." — "  Herodotus  was  the  father  of  history, 
or  rather  of  profane  history." 

§  160.  In  double  titles  of  books,  a  semicolon  is  generally  placed  before 
or,  and  a  comma  after  it;  as,  " Fascination;  or.  The  Art  of  Charming." 

RULE  XI. — OMISSION  or  words. 
§  161.  When,  to  avoid  repetition,  and,  or,  nor,  or  a  verb 
previously  used,  is  omitted,  a  comma  takes  its  place. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  In  what  school  did  the  Washingtons,  Henrys,  Hancocks,  Frank- 
lins, and  Rutledges,  of  America,  learn  the  principles  of  civil  liberty? 
(And  is  here  omitted  after  the  first  three  proper  names  respectively.) 

2.  The  merciful  man  will  not  maim  an  insect,  trample  on  a  worm,  or 
cause  an  unnecessary  pang  to  the  humblest  of  created  things.  (Oa  is 
omitted  after  insect.) 

8.  In  the  well-trained  heart,  neither  envy,  jealousy,  hatred,  nor  re- 
venge, finds  a  resting-place.     (Nor  is  omitted  after  enin/  and  jealoiuti/.) 

§  157.  In  what  case  must  the  words  Just  referred  to  have  a  comma  between 
them? 

§  158.  State  the  principle  that  applies  to  conjunctions  connecting  contrasted 
words. 

§  159.  Repent  Rule  X.,  relating  to  equivalents. 

$  160.  Uow  are  double  titles  of  books  to  be  punctuated  ? 

§  161.  Repeat  Rule  XI.,  relating  to  the  omission  of  words.  Give  examples, 
show  the  omissions,  and  state  what  point  mut^l  be  Inserted. 


THE  COMMA.  121 

4.  Conversation  makes  a  ready  man ;  writing,  an  exact  man.  (In  the 
last  member  makes  is  omitted,  and  a  comma  takes  its  place.) 

§  162.  When  this  rule  is  followed,  the  clauses  or  members  in  which 
the  omission  occurs  must  be  separated  by  semicolons.  When,  however, 
the  clauses  are  very  short,  the  style  is  lively,  and  the  connection  close, 
the  comma  may  be  employed  to  set  off  the  clauses  or  members,  and  no 
point  need  be  used  in  the  place  of  the  omitted  comma ;  as,  "  When  the 
60t  sings  the  praises  of  sobriety,  the  miser  of  generosity,  the  coward  of 
Valor,  and  the  atheist  of  religion,  we  may  easily  judge  what  is  the  sin- 
cerity of  their  professions." 

RULE   XII. — LAST   OF   A   SERIES. 

§  163.  A  comma  must  be  placed  before  and^  or,  and  nor, 
wlien  they  connect  the  last  of  a  series  of  clauses,  or  of  a  suc- 
cession of  words  that  are  the  same  part  of  speech  and  in  the 
same  construction.     See  Examples  1,  2,  3,  under  Rule  XI, 

EXERCISE. 

Insert  in  the  following  sentences  whatever  points  are  re- 
quired : — 

Under  §  151.  Anger  glances  into  the  breast  of  a  wise  man  but  it 
rests  only  in  the  bosom  of  fools — The  island  on  which  the  city  of  New 
York  stands  was  originally  bought  from  the  Indians  for  twenty-four 
dollars  whereas  it  is  now  valued  at  three  hundred  million — Week  fol- 
lowed week  until  at  last  Columbus  and  his  followers  were  thousands  of 
miles  from  their  native  shore — Bad  men  are  constantly  in  search  of  some 
new  excitement  that  their  minds  may  be  diverted  from  the  reproaches 
of  conscience — Science  is  constantly  making  new  discoveries  while  igno- 
rance and  prejudice  refuse  to  receive  those  already  made — Love  flies  out 
at  the  window  when  poverty  comes  in  at  the  door — The  lives  of  men 
.should  be  filled  with  beauty  just  as  the  earth  and  heavens  are  clothed 
with  it 

Under  §  152.  Honorable  peace  is  better  than  uncertain  war — It  is 
easier  to  excite  the  passions  of  a  mob  than  to  calm  them — What  injus- 
tice that  the  new  world  was  not  called  after  Columbus — We  know  not 
whether  to-morrow's  sun  will  find  us  alive — Shall  we  forget  that  truth  is 
mighty — It  is  a  strange  fact  that  man  alone  of  living  things  delights  in 
causing  pain  to  his  species 

Under  §  153.  Take  care  lest  the  spoiler  come — The  falling  leaves 
bid  us  beware  lest  we  fix  our  affections  too  firmly  on  the  things  of  earth 


8 162.  When  this  rule  is  followed,  by  what  point  must  the  clauses  be  separated  ? 
What  exception  is  there  ? 

§  163.  Repeat  Rule  XII.,  relating  to  the  last  of  a  series  of  clauses. 
6 


123  THE  COMMA. 

— "We  should  have  a  care  lest  sinful  pleasures  seduce  us  with  their  mani- 
fold temptations — Beware  lest  they  suddenly  fall  upon  thee 

Under  §  154.  The  great  astronomical  clock  of  Strasburg  is  twenty- 
four  feet  higher  than  the  tallest  of  the  Egyptian  pyramids  and  one  hun- 
dred and  forty  feet  higher  than  St.  Paul's  in  London — Cicero  was  supe- 
rior to  Demosthenes  in  the  finish  of  his  periods  but  inferior  to  him  in 
energy  and  fire — The  fool  neither  knows  whether  he  is  right  nor  cares 
whether  he  is  wrong — The  world  has  gained  wisdom  from  its  years  and 
is  quick  to  penetrate  disguises — The  brave  man  will  conquer  or  perish  iu 
the  attempt 

Under  §  155.  Study  disciplines  the  mind  and  matures  the  judgment 
— Virtue  should  be  the  aim  of  our  youth  and  the  solace  of  our  declining 
years — Years  come  and  go — Galileo  read  or  wrote  the  greater  part  of 
the  night — Here  sit  we  down  and  rest — How  sweetly  and  solemnly  sound 
the  evening  chimes 

Under  §  156.  The  bold  man  does  not  hesitate  to  take  a  position  and 
maintain  it. — Adams  and  Jeiferson  died  by  a  singular  coincidence  July 
4th  1826 — The  magnitude  of  the  heavenly  bodies  and  their  almost  infinite 
distance  from  us  fill  our  minds  with  views  at  once  magnificent  and  sub- 
lime 

Under  §  157.  I  woke  and  thought  upon  my  dream — With  the  aid 
of  the  telescope  we  discern  in  the  moon  vast  yawning  pits  and  huge  vol- 
canoes sending  forth  their  awful  fires — In  the  bazaar  may  be  seen  tons 
of  ice  and  vast  quantities  of  ivory  from  Africa — The  relative  pronoun 
who  is  applied  to  persons  and  things  personified 

Under  §  158.  Bear  and  forbear — Brave  not  rash  is  the  true  hero — 
He  is  not  a  fool  but  only  foolish — Remember  the  favors  you  receive  not 
those  you  confer — The  credulous  may  believe  this  wonderful  story  not  1 
— It  is  as  great  a  sin  to  murder  one's  self  as  to  murder  another 

Under  §  159  The  period  or  full  stop  denotes  the  end  of  a  complete 
sentence — Republics  show  little  gratitude  to  their  great  men  or  rather 
none  at  all — Hence  originated  philosophy  or  the  love  of  wisdom — At 
this  point  the  lake  is  ten  fathoms  or  sixty  feet  deep — The  Marquis  of 
Anglesea  or  as  he  was  then  called  Lord  Paget  lost  a  leg  at  the  battle  of 
Waterloo 

Under  §  160.  {Besides  punctuating  ike  following  sentences,  tise  capitals 
trJuerever  required  by  §  65.)  We  have  just  finished  reading  "  six  months 
in  the  gold-diggings  or  a  miner's  experience  in  eldorado  " — A  new  book 
of  travels  has  just  made  its  appearance  entitled  "  The  city  of  the  doges 
or  Venice  and  the  Venetians  in  the  nineteenth  century  " 

Under  §  161.  Study  makes  a  learned  man  experience  a  wise  one — 
Rapid  exhaustless  deep  his  numbers  flowed — Let  your  pleasure  be 
moderate  seasonable  innocent,  and  becoming  {comma  after  innocent 
according  to  §  163) — Mahomet's  Paradise  consisted  of  pure  waters  shady 
groves  luscious  fruits  and  exquisite  houris  —  The  author  dreads  the 
critic  the  miser  the  thief  the  criminal  the  magistrate  and  every  body 
public  opinion: — My  liead  is  filled  with  dew  my  locks  with  the  drops 
of  the  night— Benevolence  is  allied  to  few  vices  selfishness  to  fewer 
virtues 


THE  COMMA.  123 

IJndeb  ^  162.  Without  books  justice  is  dormant  philosophy  lame 
literature  ^umb  and  all  things  are  involved  in  darkness — Without 
modesty  beauty  is  ungraceful  learning  unattractive  and  wit  disgusting — 
Pride  goeth  before  destruction  and  a  haughty  spirit  before  a  fall — Talent 
is  surrounded  with  dangers  and  beauty  with  temptations 

Under  §  163.  Mahomet  the  founder  of  Islamism  did  not  hesitate  to 
work  with  his  own  hands  he  kindled  the  fire  swept  his  room  made  his 
bed  milked  his  ewes  and  camels  mended  his  stockings  and  scoured  his 
sT^uord — So  eagerly  the  Fiend  o'er  bog  or  steep  through  strait  rough  densie 
or  rare  with  head  hands  wings  or  feet  pursues  his  way 

Suns  moons  and  stars  and  clouds  his  sisters  were 
Rocks  mountains  meteors  seas -and  winds  and  storms 
His  brothers 


LESSON   XXIV. 

THE    COMMA    (CONTINUED). 
RULE      XIII. — COMMON     CONNECTION. 

§  164.  When  two  or  more  antecedent  portions  of  a  sen- 
tence have  a  common  connection  with  some  succeeding  clause 
or  word,  a  comma  must  be  placed  after  each;  as,  "  She  is  as 
tall,  though  not  so  handsome,  as  her  sister." 

Commas  are  frequently  required,  under  this  rule,  after  diflferent  prep- 
ositions governing  the  same  substantive ;  as,  "  They  are  fitted  for,  and 
accustomed  to,  very  different  modes  of  life." 

In  the  case  of  a  series  of  adjectives  preceding  their  noun,  a  oomma 
is  placed  after  each  but  the  last ;  and  there  general  usage,  by  an  un- 
philosophical  anomaly,  requires  us  to  omit  the  point;  as,  "A  quick, 
brilliant,  studious,  learned  man  ".  This  usage  violates  one  of  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  punctuation ;  it  indicates,  very  improperly,  that 
the  noun  man  is  more  closely  connected  with  learned  than  with  the 
other  adjectives.  Analogy  and  perspicuity  require  a  comma  after 
learned. 


%  164.  Bepeat  Rule  XHI.,  relating  to  common  connection.  After  what  part  of 
speech  are  commas  frequently  required  under  this  rule  ?  What  usage  prevails  in 
the  case  of  a  series  of  adjectives  preceding  their  noun  ?  What  i»  said  of  this  usage  ? 


124:  THE   COIVIMA. 

RULE    XIV. — WOKDS  IN  PAIRS. 

§  165.  Words  used  in  pairs  take  a  comma  after  each  pair ; 
as,  "  The  dying  man  cares  not  for  pomp  or  luxury,  palace  or 
estate,  silver  or  gold." — "  Ignorant  and  superstitious,  cun- 
ning and  vicious,  deceitful  and  treacherous,  the  natives  of 
this  island  are  among  the  most  degraded  of  raanldnd." 

RULE    XV. — WORDS   REPEATED. 

§  1G6.  "Words  repeated  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  must  be 
set  off,  w^ith  their  adjuncts  if  they  have  any,  by  the  comma ; 
as,  "  Very,  verily,  I  say  unto  you." 

§  167.  If,  however,  the  repetition  is  abrupt,  proceeds  from  hesitation, 
or  is  accompanied  with  a  break  in  the  sentiment,  a  dash  may  be  used  ; 
as,  "  He  has  gone  to  his  rest — gone,  to  return  no  more." 

RULE    XVI. — THE   INFINITIVE   MOOD. 

§  168.  A  comma  must  be  placed  before  to,  the  sign  of 
the  infinitive  mood,  when  equivalent  to  in  order  to ;  as, 
"  Cicero  sent  his  son  to  Athens,  to  complete  his  education." 

RULE    XVII. — QUOTATIONS   AND    OBSERVATIONS. 

§  169.  The  comma  must  set  off  quotations,  passages  re- 
sembling them  in  form,  and  observations  in  general,  when 
short  and  not  formally  introduced ;  as,  "  It  was  Bion  that 
first  said,  *  Know  thyself.' " — "  I  would  here  call  attention  to 
the  fact,  that  nature  has  endowed  the  body  with  recuperative 
faculties,  which  often  enable  it;  to  rally  and  recover  from  pros- 
tration when  science  has  exhausted  all  its  remedies  in  vain." 

When  formally  introduced  by  the  words  tlmc^  foUoxoing^  or  as/oUows, 
a  colon  must  precede  the  quotation. 

§  170.  When  a  quotation  is  divided,  a  comma  must  be  placed  on 


§  1(55.  Repent  Rule  XTV.,  rolatiujc  to  words  used  in  pairs. 
§  100.  Repeat  Rule  XV.,  relating  to  words  repeated. 
§  107.  In  what  case  may  a  dash  bo  used  instead  of  a  comma? 
§  108.  Repeat  Rule  XVI.,  rolatinj;  to  the  iuanitive  mood. 
§  101>.  Repeat  Rule  XVII.,  relafitij;  to  quotations.    Whon  formally  introduced, 
by  what  point  is  the  quota tiou  preceded  ? 


THE   CO^IMA.  125 

each  side  of  the  words  introduced  between  its  parts  ;  as,  "  One  to-day," 
gays  Franklin,  "  is  worth  two  to-morrows." 

RULE    XVIII. — CORRELATIVE    TERMS. 

§  171.  Members  of  sentences  containing  correlative  ad- 
verbs and  conjunctions,  are  separated  by  the  comma ;  as, "  The 
harder  we  study,  the  better  we  Hke  to  study." — "  As  a  cloud 
darkens  the  sky,  so  sorrow  casts  a  gloom  over  the  soul." 

§  172.  The  comma,  however,  is  generally  omitted  in  the  case  of  so — 
that,  so — as,  rather — than,  and  more — tha7i,  especially  Avhen  the  parts  they 
connect  are  clauses  and  not  members ;  unless  the  related  parts  contain 
subdivisions  separated  by  the  comma,  in  v/hich  case  the  same  point  must 
be  placed  before  the  last  correlative  term. 

FXAMPLES. 

1.  He  is  so  exhausted  that  he  can  not  work. 

2.  So  act  as  to  gain  the  respect  of  men. 

3.  The  Laplander  would  rather  live  in  his  own  land  than  any  other. 

4.  Marie  Antoinette  was  more  amiable  in  her  life  than  fortunate  in  her 
death. 

1.  He  is  so  unwell,  weak,  and  exhausted,  that  he  can  not  work. 

2.  So  think,  speak,  and  act,  as  to  gain  the  respect  of  men, 

3.  The  Laplander,  however,  would  rather  live  in  his  own  land,  than  any 
other. 

4.  Marie  Antoinette,  queen  of  France,  was  more  amiable  in  her  life,  than 
fortunate  in  her  death. 

RULE    XIX. — AMBIGUOUS    CONSTRUCTIONS. 

§  173.  A  comma  must  be  used,  even  when  not  required 
by  the  grammatical  construction,  wherever  it  serves  to  de- 
velop the  sense  or  prevent  ambiguity. 

Thus,  after  a  long  logical  subject,  a  comma  is  of  service  ;  as,  "  That 
a  man  thoroughly  educated  in  youth  and  who  has  ever  since  been  in  the 
habit  of  composing  could  make  so  gross  a  mistake  through  ignorance,  is 
almost  incredible." 

Cases  in  which  the  comma  prevents  ambiguity  have  been  noticed 
under  several  of  the  foregoing  rules. 


§  170.  What  is  the  mode  of  punctnatingr,  when  a  quotation  is  divided  ? 

§  171.  Repeat  Rule  XVIII.,  relating  to  correlative  terms. 

§  172.  In  the  case  of  what  correlatives  is  the  comma  generally  omitted  ?  Wlien, 
however,  do  they  take  it? 

§  173.  Repeat  Rule  XIX.,  relating  to  ambiguous  constructions.  According  to 
this  rule,  where  is  a  comma  of  service  ? 


126  THE   COMMA. 

RULE    XX. — NUMBERS   EXPRESSED    BY    FIGURES. 

§  174.  Except  in  the  case  of  dates,  numbers  written  in 
Arabic  characters  take  a  comma  after  each  period  of  three 
figures,  beginning  at  "the  right;  as,  "In  1846,  the  planet 
Neptune  was  discovered,  and  found  to  be  at  a  distance  of 
2,746,271,000  miles  from  the  sun." 

Dates  must  always  be  expressed  by  figures.  So  must  large  numbers, 
when  many  words  would  be  required  to  denote  them.  Otherwise,  as  in 
the  case  of  round  numbers,  and  always  for  small  ones,  words  are  to  be 
employed.  Thus  :  "  Venus  is,  in  round  numbers,  sixty-nine  million  miles 
from  the  sun ;  its  exact  distance  is  68,932,000  miles." — "  We  leave  the 
ninety-nine  sheep  that  are  safe,  to  look  after  the  one  that  is  lost." 

EXERCISE. 

Supply  the  points  omitted  in  the  following  sentences : — 

Under  §  164.  The  spirit  of  liberty  must  change  it  is  fast  changing 
the  face  of  the  earth — The  world  at  this  moment  is  regarding  us  with  a 
willing  but  something  of  a  fearful  admiration — The  literature  of  a  nation 
is  one  of  its  highest  and  certainly  one  of  its  most  refined  elements  of 
greatness — He  who  lacks  decision  of  character  may  win  the  love  but  he 
certainly  can  not  gain  the  respect  of  his  fellow  men — This  doctrine  is 
founded  upon  and  consistent  with  the  truth 

Under  §  165.  These  shores  rough  and  cold  barbarous  and  barren 
devoid  of  comforts  and  even  necessaries  peopled  with  fierce  beasts  and 
fiercer  savages  became  their  home — Sink  or  swim  survive  or  perish  I  am 
for  the  Declaration — Vicissitudes  of  good  and  evil  of  trials  and  consola- 
tions of  joy  and  sorrow  of  cloud  and  sunshine  fill  up  the  Ufe  of  man — I 
M  take  thee  N  to  my  wedded  wife  to  have  and  to  hold  from  this  day  for- 
ward for  better  for  worse  for  richer  for  poorer  in  sickness  and  in  health 
to  love  and  to  cherish  till  death  us  do  part 

Under  §  166.  Lend  lend  your  wings  I  mount  I  fly — Quit  oh  quit  this 
mortal  frame — Speak  not  harshly  speak  not  harshly  to  the  orphan's 
tender  heart — Charge  charge  on  the  cravens — Some  shriek  shriek  madly 
in  the  whirling  gulf — He  swam  the  Tiber  unhurt  unhurt  alike  by  his  fall 
and  the  weapons  of  the  enemy 

Under  §  167.  Dust  dust  thou  art  vile  and  dishonored  dust — The 
tyrant  slept  slept  but  rested  not — We  have  promised  we  have  promised 
but  recollect  under  certain  restrictions — I  fear  I  fear  that  he  will  play 
you  false — You  think  him  happily  situated  happily  situated  with  aeon- 
science  that  allows  him  no  rest  a  conscience  which  keeps  his  evil  deed- 
constantly  before  his  eyes 

§  174.  Repeat  Rule  XX.,  relating  to  numbers  expressed  by  figures.  How 
must  dates  always  be  expressed?  How,  large  numbers?  Boond  numbers? 
Small  numbers  ?  ^ 


THE   COMMA,  127 

Under  §  168.  The  people  of  Mayence  to  show  their  gratitude  to  Gut- 
tenberg  the  inventor  of  printing  have  erected  in  his  honor  a  magnificent 
statue  wrought  by  the  sculptor  Thorwaldsen — Tyrants  when  reason  and 
argument  make  against  them  have  recourse  to  violence  to  silence  their 
opponents — He  comes  to  heal  the  sick  and  set  the  captive  free — Oh 
that  I  had  the  wings  of  the  morning  to  flee  to  the  uttermost  parts  of  the 
earth 

Under  §  169.  A  poet  aptly  asks  "What  will  not  men  attempt  for 
sacred  praise " — Let  the  thought  be  deeply  engraved  upon  your  heart 
that  every  moment  which  flies  is  irrecoverably  lost — The  schoolmen  of 
the  Middle  Ages  occupied  themselves  with  discussing  the  important 
question  whether  spirits  can  move  from  one  place  to  another  without 
passing  through  the  intervening  space — Let  our  fixed  resolve  be  liberty 
or  death — The  truth  of  Swift's  assertion  that  no  man  ever  wished  him- 
self younger  may  well  be  questioned 

Under  §  170.  "  Liars  "  says  Aristotle  "  are  not  believed  even  when 
they  speak  the  truth  " — "  An  angel's  arm  "  says  the  poet  Young  "  can't 
snatch  me  from  the  grave ;  legions  of  angels  "  he  adds  with  equal  truth 
*' can't  confine  me  there" — With  what  motive  it  may  be  asked  did  Chat- 
terton  commence  his  course  of  imposture  For  pecuniary  profit  I  answer 
or  perhaps  for  the  pleasure  of  deceiving  the  world 

Under  §  171.  Neither  can  wealth  make  a  bad  man  respectable  nor 
can  poverty  sink  a  worthy  person  below  the  station  his  virtues  deserve 
— As  thy  day  is  so  shall  thy  strength  be — Whether  Jansen  is  entitled 
to  the  undivided  honor  of  inventing  the  telescope  or  Metius  had  pre- 
viously discovered  the  principle  involved  in  that  instrument  is  a  subject 
of  discussion  among  the  learned — Though  he  slay  me  yet  will  I  trust  in 
him 

Under  §  172.  They  now  live  more  happily  than  ever — They  now  live 
more  respectably  comfortably  and  happily  than  ever — Catiline  was  so 
overcome  with  shame  that  he  could  not  speak — Catiline  was  so  overcome 
with  shame  disappointment  and  anger  that  he  could  not  speak — The  his- 
tory of  the  United  States  shows  a  more  rapid  advance  in  power  and  im- 
portance than  has  ever  been  made  by  any  other  nation — Cicero  was  as 
vain  as  he  was  eloquent 

Under  §  173.  To  assume  that  a  person  is  guilty  of  an  offence  because 
appearances  happen  to  be  against  him  is  manifestly  unjust — The  author 
of  these  profound  and  philosophical  essays  on  the  abstract  questions  of 
Moral  Philosophy  was  a  poor  blacksmith — Men  who  have  no  desire  to 
participate  in  the  factious  quarrels  and  personal  animosities  which  now 
unhappily  distract  the  land  are  rudely  dragged  into  the  arena  of  politics 
— Books  and  study  only  teach  the  proper  use  of  books 

Under  §  174.  In  1800  the  population  of  the  city  of  New  York  was 
60489  in  1850  it  was  515597  showing  an  increase  during  this  lapse  of  fifty 
years  of  455108  souls— In  4850  the  debt  of  the  state  of  New  York 
amounted  to  $22859053  we  may  call  it  in  round  numbers  twenty-three 
millions  of  dollars — The  comet  of  1811  had  a  diameter  of  at  least  560000 
geographical  miles  and  a  tail  eighty-eight  millions  of  miles  in  length 


128  THE  COMHA. 

LESSON  XXV. 

THE     COMMA      (cONTINUBD). 

§  175.  As  the  rules  for  the  comma  are  numerous  anc 
more  difficult  of  application  than  those  relating  to  the  other 
points,  it  has  been  thought  best  to  illustrate  them  with  a 
miscellaneous  exercise,  which  will  bring  before  the  student's 
mind,  in  connection,  all  the  cases  in  which  this  point  is  re- 
quired. Cautions  are  first  presented,  for  the  purpose  of 
warning  the  student  against  errors  which  the  author  has 
found  that  the  inexperienced  are  most  likely  to  make. 

Caution  I.  Do  not  suppose  that  a  sentence,  simply  be- 
cause it  is  long,  must  contain  a  comma.  Unbroken  connec- 
tion between  the  parts  of  a  sentence,  no  matter  how  long  it 
may  be,  precludes  the  use  of  this  jioint.  Thus :  "  It  is  hard 
for  those  who  pride  themselves  on  the  greatness  of  man  to 
believe  that  those  mighty  cities  which  Avcrc  once  the  wonder 
and  admiration  of  the  ancient  world  could  so  entirely  have 
disappeared  that  their  position  is  now  a  subject  of  discus- 
sion among  scholars  and  antiquaries." 

Caution  II.  Do  not  insert  a  comma  between  a  grammat- 
ical subject  and  its  verb,  when  the  one  immediately  follows 
the  other.  A  rhetorical  pause  is,  in  this  case,  sometimes  re- 
quired before  the  verb ;  but  a  comma,  never. 

Caution  III.  There  must  be  no  comma  before  and^ 
when  it  connects  two  words  only ;  as,  "  A  prosperous  and 
happy  country  ". 

Caution  IV.  Observe  the  difference  of  punctuation  in 
sentences  like  the  following : — 

The  Romiins,  having  conquered  the  world,  wore  unable  to  conqutr 

themselves. 
The  Romans  having  conquered  the  world,  freedom  of  thought  and 

action  became  extinct 


1 175.  What  is  said  of  the  mies  for  the  comma  ?    WTiat  i3  the  embstancc  of 
Caution  I.  ?  of  Caution  II.  ?  of  Caution  III.  ?  of  Caution  IV.  ?  of  Caution  V.  ? 


THE  COMMA.  1^9 

In  the  first  sentence,  Romans  is  the  grammatical  subject  of  were,  and 
the  parenthetical  participial  clause  between  these  words  must  be  set  oif 
by  a  comma  on  each  side.  In  the  second,  Romans,  being  used  absolute- 
ly with  the  participle  having  conquered,  must  not  be  separated  from  it  by 
a  comma,  but  this  point  must  be  reserved  for  the  termination  of  the  en- 
tire absolute  clause. 

Cautioi?^  V.  When  you  are  in  doubt  as  to  the  propriety 
of  inserting  commas,  omit  them ;  it  is  better  to  have  too  few 
than  too  many. 

MISCELLANEOUS    EXERCISE. 

Supply  such  points  as  are  necessary  in  the  following 
sentences : — 

UxDEii  Rule  I,  Education  if  it  can  not  accomplish  every  thing  can 
nevertheless  accomplish  much — Achilles  unquestionably  was  a  puissant 
warrior  but  had  not  the  poetry  of  Homer  immortalized  his  name  ho 
would  now  in  all  likelihood  have  been  as  little  known  as  the  meanest 
soldier  in  the  Grecian  host 

Under  Rule  II.  By  all  that  you  hold  dear  on  earth  listen  to  my 
prayer — To  accomplish  these  ends  he  left  no  means  however  insignifi- 
cant untried — If  I  were  not  Alexander  I  would  be  Diogenes — If  fortune 
has  played  thee  false  to-day  do  thou  play  true  for  thyself  to-morrow — 
Never  be  discouraged  however  gloomy  the  prospect 

Under  Rule  III.  In  every  line  of  Dante's  "  Divine  Comedy "  we 
discern  the  asperity  which  is  produced  by  pride  struggling  with  misery 
— AVe  designate  as  the  mind  that  part  of  us  which  feels  knows  and  thinks 
— A  man  renowned  for  repartee  often  sacrifices  the  feelings  of  his  friends 
to  his  attempts  at  wit — The  means  by  which  men  acquire  glory  are 
various 

Under  Rule  IV.  Hail  Patience  blest  source  of  peace  blest  cure  for 
every  pain — Sisters  and  brothers  how  many  may  you  be — Were  I  even 
declared  king  or  elected  president  of  such  a  nation  I  should  esteem  it 
no  honor — The  genealogy  of  princes  the  field-book  of  conquerors  history 
is  well  worthy  of  our  attention 

Under  Rule  V.  Among  the  noblest  attributes  of  a  virtuous  man  is 
justice — Over  the  matchless  talents  of  Washington  probity  threw  her 
brightest  lustre — Of  infancy  childhood  boyhood  and  youth  we  have  been 
discoursing — Than  pleasure's  exaggerated  promises  nothing  can  be  more 
alluring  to  youth 

Under  Rule  VI.  All  that  live  must  die — Apostles  prophets  and 
martyrs  have  proved  the  truth  of  the  Christian  faith — All  tlie  rules  of 
eloquence  the  precepts  of  philosophy  a^,!  the  refined  conversation  of 
Athens  to  which  place  he  was  sent  by  his  father  for  the  completion  of 
his  education  failed  to  make  Cicero's  son  an  orator  or  a  man  of  talent — 
Worlds  above  around  beneath  and  on  all  sides  arch  thee  about  aa  a 
centre 


130  THE  COMMA. 

Under  Rule  VII.  The  ship  having  left  her  wharf  a  salute  was  fired 
from  the  shore — A  habit  of  indolence  once  formed  it  is  extremely  diffi- 
cult to  shake  it  off— The  campaign  thus  fairly  opened  both  parties  pros- 
ecuted the  war  with  unprecedented  vigor — Ye  men  of  Rome  shake  off 
your  sloth 

Under  Rule  VIII.  The  sun  sets  but  he  will  rise  again — We  obey 
the  laws  of  society  because  it  is  expedient  to  do  so— Art  is  long  but 
time  is  fleeting — Great  poets  are  rare  while  empty  rhymesters  can  be 
counted  by  thousands — Must  we  submit  to  such  indignities  in  order  that 
we  may  have  enough  to  eat 

Under  Rule  IX.  Man  wants  but  little  here  below  nor  .wants  that 
little  long — Sincerity  is  as  valuable  as  knowledge  and  on  some  accounts 
more  so — Cunning  and  avarice  may  gain  an  estate  but  can  not  gain 
friends — We  are  naturally  inclined  to  praise  those  who  praise  us  and  to 
flatter  those  who  flatter  us 

Under  Rule  X.  English  Grammar  or  the  art  of  speaking  and  writ- 
ing the  English  language  correctly  can  not  in  this  country  be  too  much 
studded — The  Persians  or  rather  the  survivors  of  them  retreated  from 
the  field  of  battle  with  all  possible  despatch — Young  ladies'  seminaries 
or  as  they  were  formerly  called  girls'  schools  abound  in  this  part  of  the 
country 

Under  Rule  XL,  XII.  Modem  times  with  all  their  boasted  progress 
have  never  produced  as  strong  a  man  as  Samson  as  meek  a  man  as  Moses 
or  as  wise  a  man  as  Solomon — Life  is  short  unsatisfactory  and  uncertain 
— Men  women  and  children  stare  cry  out  and  run — Caesar  came  saw  and 
conquered 

Under  Rule  XIII.  Deeds  not  words  are  the  proper  tests  by  which 
to  try  a  man's  character — Who  is  so  beautiful  who  so  graceful  as  the 
maid  of  Lodore — I  beg  of  you  beware  of  and  avoid  the  evil-doer — How 
sweet  the  voice  how  blessed  the  words  of  him  who  oifers  consolation  to 
the  mourner 

Under  Rule  XIV.  Poverty  and  distress  desolation  and  ruin  are  the 
consequences  of  civil  war — Virtue  without  industry  and  idleness  without 
vice  are  impossibilities — Generous  but  not  prodigal  frugal  but  not  par- 
simonious brave  but  not  rash  learned  but  not  pedantic  this  prince  main- 
tained a  happy  medium  between  all  objectionable  extremes 

Under  Rule  XV.  Onward  onward  strong  and  steady  —  Blessed 
thrice  blessed  is  the  peace-maker — There  we  hope  to  enjoy  rest  never- 
ending  rest  rest  in  which  are  concentrated  all  conceivable  pleasures — 
Suddenly  there  came  a  tapping  as  of  some  one  gently  rapping  rapping 
at  my  chamber  door — Lochiel  Lochicl  beware  of  the  day 

Under  Rule  XVI.  We  must  respect  ourselves  to  have  others  respect 
us — A  man  must  be  a  genius  indeed  to  say  any  thing  new  about  Niag- 
ara— Eat  to  live  do  not  live  to  eat — lie  is  going  to  Europe  to  see  whether 
travelling  will  benefit  his  health 

Under  Rule  XVII.  It  was  a  principle  of  O'Connell's  that  no  politi- 
cal advantage  is  worth  a  crime — When  Xerxes  sent  a  haughty  message 
to  Leonidas  that  ho  should  deliver  up  his  arms  the  Spartan  warrior 
answered  in  true  Laconic  style  "  Let  him  come  and  take  them " — 
*'  Language  "  says  Talleyrand  "  was  given  us  to  conceal  our  thoughts  " 


THE  DASH.  131 

Under  Rule  XVIII.  Though  Tycho  de  Brahe  Who  lived  near  the 
close  of  the  sixteenth  century  certainly  recognized  the  correctness  of 
the  Copernican  system  at  an  early  period  yet  his  ambitious  vanity  and 
rehgious  prejudices  urged  him  to  oppose  it — Either  you  must  confess 
your  crime  or  I  shall  have  to  suffer  unjustly 

Ukder  Rule  XIX.  To  contemplate  abstract  subjects  only  disciplines 
the  mind  rarely  if  ever  interesting  it — A  long  course  of  conduct  so  en- 
tirely opposed  to  what  honest  men  consider  required  by  the  great  prin- 
ciples of  truth  and  justice  can  not  be  passed  over  without  the  strongest 
reprobation 

Under  Rule  XX.  The  loftiest  mountain  in  the  moon  is  said  by  as- 
tronomers to  be  lYlSS  feet  high — The  surface  of  the  sun  contains 
1865312000000  square  miles  that  of  the  moon  10350400  that  of  the  earth 
148512000 


LESSON   XXVI. 

THE     DASH. 

§  176.  The  dash,  a  character  of  comparatively  recent  in- 
troduction, has  of  late,  both  by  writers  and  printers,  been 
very  wrongly  endowed  with  the  functions  of  parentheses, 
comma,  semicolon,  colon,  and  even  period;  and  is  now  ex- 
tensively used  by  many,  who  find  it  a  convenient  substitute 
when  ignorance  prevents  them  from  employing  the  proper 
point.  Against  this  prevailing  abuse  the  student  can  not 
be  too  impressively  warned.  The  dash  has  its  legitimate 
uses,  and  performs  a  part  in  which  no  other  point  can 
properly  take  its  place ;  but  it  must  not  be  allowed  to  over- 
step its  proper  limits.  Use  this  point,  therefore,  only  where 
it  is  strictly  required  by  the  following  Rules : — ■ 

RULE    I. — BREAKS,   SUSPENSIONS,   TRANSITIONS,   &C. 

§  177.  The  dash  is  used  to  denote  a  break  in  the  con- 
struction, a  suspension  of  the  sense,  an  unexpected  transition 

§  170.  WTien  was  the  dash  first  Introduced  ?    What  is  said  of  its  use  at  th« 
present  day? 

§  177.  Repeat  Rule  I.4  relating  to  breaks,  siispenflions,  &c. 


132  THE   DASir. 

in  the  sentiment,  a  sudden  interruption,  and  hesitation  in  the 
speaker. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  Nero,  Domitian,  Caligula,  Heliogabalus — one  and  the  same  character 
belongs  to  them  all. 

2.  Politicians  are  brilliant,  versatile,  profound,  far-seeing — everything 
but  honest. 

He  had  no  malice  in  his  mind — 
No  ruffles  on  his  shirt. 

4.  "No  one  is  aware  of  your  imprisonment  but  Sir  William,  and  he 

is " 

"  Here !  "  interrupted  a  deep  voice,  as  the  door  flew  open. 
6.  "  I  would  do  it,  but — but — to  say  the  truth — I " 

"  To  say  the  truth,  you  are  afraid,"  broke  in  the  earl. 

RULE    II. — AFTER   OTHER  POINTS. 

§  178.  A  dash  may  be  used  after  other  points,  when  a 
greater  pause  than  they  usually  denote  is  required. 

Hence  it  appears  that  the  dash  is  a  rhetorical  as  well  as 
a  grammatical  point. 

Under  this  rule,  a  dash  is  used  in  the  following  cases : — 
1.  After  a  period,  interrogation-point,  and  exclamation-point. 

1.  When  a  writer  passes  to  a  new  branch  of  his  subject  without 
commencing  a  new  paragraph ;  as,  "  From  this  it  is  evident  that 
friendship  had  its  origin  in  the  social  feelings  which  nature  has 
implanted  in  the  breast  of  man. — Let  us  now  look  at  its  eflects." 

2.  In  dialogues,  when  in  the  same  paragraph  one  person  ceases 
speaking  and  another  begins  ;  as,  "  '  Art  thou  not — '  — *  What  ? ' — 
'  A  traitor ! '— *  Yes.'—*  A  villain ! '— '  Granted.' " 

3.  A  dash  is  generally  placed  after  the  three  points  above  men- 
tioned, between  a  passage  quoted  and  the  name  of  the  author  or 
book  it  is  taken  from  ;  also,  between  a  side-head  and  the  subject- 
matter  to  which  it  belongs  ;  also,  between  sentences  that  have  no 
connection,  when  brought  together  in  the  same  paragraph. 

§  178.  Repeat  Rule  II.,  relating  to  the  use  of  the  dash  after  other  points.  What 
kind  of  a  point  does  this  phow  the  dash  pometlmcs  to  be  ?  After  what  points  ip  a 
dash  pometimep  required  by  a  change  of  Pubjcct  ?  In  what  case  ?  When  is  a  dash 
required  after  the  period,  interrojfatiou-polnt,  and  exclamation-point.  In  dia- 
logues ?  State  the  principle  that  applies  to  the  use  of  the  dash  after  these  three 
points,  in  th«  cage  of  quoted  passages,  eide-heads,  and  unconnected  sentences. 


THE   DASH.  183 

EXAMPLES. 

«.  Men  of  humor  are  always,  in  some  degree,  men  of  genius. — Cole- 
ridge's Tahle-Talk. 

b.  Form  op  the  Earth. — Heraclitus  supposed  that  the  earth  had  the 
form  of  a  canoe ;  Aristotle,  that  it  was  shaped  like  a  timbrel ; 
Anaximander,  that  it  was  a  vast  cylinder. 

c.  For  dashes  between  unconnected  sentences,  see  Exercise  on  p.  130. 

II.  After  a  colon,  when  reference  is  made  by  this,  these,  following ,  or 
as  follows,  to  several  succeeding  sentences  or  a  new  paragraph  ;  as, 
"  The  cloth  having  been  removed,  the  president  rose  and  made  the 
following  address : — 

'  Ladies  and  gentlemen,  we  have  assembled,  &c.' " 

III.  After  a  semicolon  a  dash  is  sometimes  used,  though  not  absolutely 
necessary,  when  the  last  member  is  placed  in  Hvely  contrast  with 
the  first,  or  implies  strong  opposition  to  it ;  as,  "  He  chastens ; — 
but  he  chastens  to  save." 

IV.  After  a  comma, 

1.  When  it  follows  a  logical  subject  consisting  of  several  particulars 
separated  by  semicolons,  or  by  commas,  when,  for  the  sake  of 
greater  definitene'ss,  the  words  all,  these,  all  these,  such,  or  the 
like,  referring  to  the  particulars  before  enumerated,  are  intro- 
duced as  the  immediate  subject  of  a  verb ;  as,  "  To  be  overlooked, 
slighted,  and  neglected  ;  to  be  misunderstood,  misrepresented,  and 
slandered ;  to  be  trampled  under  foot  by  the  envious,  the  igno- 
rant, and  the  vile ;  to  be  crushed  by  foes,  and  to  be  distrusted 
and  betrayed  even  by  friends, — such  is  too  often  the  fate  of 
genius." 

2.  "When,  in  consequence  of  the  omission  of  namely,  or  a  similar 
word,  a  longer  pause  is  required  than  that  usually  denoted  by 
the  comma,  though  the  connection  is  so  close  as  not  to  admit  a 
higher  point ;  as,  "  There  is  one  feeling,  and  only  one,  that  seems 
to  pervade  the  breasts  of  all  men  ahke, — the  love  of  Ufe." 

RULE   III. — REPETITIONS. 

§  179.  The  dash  is  used  before  a  repeated  word  or  "ex- 
pression, when  the  repetition  is  abrupt  or  exclamatory,  pro- 


When  must  a  dash  follow  a  colon  ?     When  is  this  point  Bometimes  oeed  alter  % 
Bemicolon  ?    In  what  two  cases  is  a  dash  required  after  a  comma  ? 
%  179.  Repeat  Rule  III.,  relating  to  repetitions. 


134  THE   DASH. 

ceeds  from  hesitation,  or  is  accompanied  with  a  change  in 
the  sentiment. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  Here  sleeps  the  dust  of  Cicero — Cicero !  who  once  thrilled  a  world 
with  his  eloquence. 

2.  He  is  a — a — a — excuse  me,  but  I  must  say  it — a  cold-blooded  villain. 

3.  Such  is  your  affected,  sentimental  lover — a  lover  of  nothing  but 
himself. 

RULE  IV. — oi^nssiONS. 

§  180.  Tlie  dash  is  used  to  denote  an  omissioiT  of  letters, 
figures,  and  words ;  as,  "  On  a  bright  summer  day  in  the 

year  18 — ,  the  stirring  little  village  of was  thrown  into 

unusual  excitement  by  the  arrival  of  the  E- family  from 

London." 

EXERCISE. 

In  the  following  sentences  supply  the  omitted  points  :— 

Under  §  1*77.  I  am  your  lordship's  most  obsequious  zounds  what  a 
peer  of  the  realm — And  bid  her  you  mark  me  on  Wednesday  next  but 
soft  what  day  is  this — Rich  honesty  often  dwells  in  a  poor  house  like 
your  pearl  in  a  spoiled  oyster — If  it  should  rain  I  request  the  poor  thing 
may  have  a  a  what's  this  coat  coat  no  coach — I'm  off  Sir  Charles  I'll  do 
your  errands  A  double-barrelled  gun  two  scruples  of  jalap  my  lady's 
poodle  your  lordship's  wig  a  sticking-plaster  they  shall  be  here  within 
the  hour — "  My  friend  the  counsellor  "  "  Say  learned  friend  if  you  please 
sir" — "There  is  a  business  Mr.  Alderman  fallen  out  which  you  may 
oblige  me  infinitely  by  I  am  very  sorry  that  I  am  forced  to  be  trouble- 
some but  necessity  Mr.  Alderman  "  "  Ay  sir  as  you  say  necessity  But 
upon  my  word  dear  sir  I  am  very  short  of  money  at  present  still " 
"  That's  not  the  matter  sir  " — They  poisoned  my  very  soul  hot  burning 
poisons — Away  ungrateful  wretch  A.  father's  curse  rest  Alas  what  am  I 
doing  I  can  not  curse  my  son — It  was  a  sight  that  child  in  the  agony  of 
death  that  would  have  moved  a  heart  of  stone 

A  crimson  handkerchief  adorned  his  head 
His  face  was  cheerful  and  his  nose  was  red 

Under  §  lYS.  They  were  about  laying  violent  hands  upon  me  in 
the  senate-house  What  must  this  empire  then  be  unavoidably  over- 
turi^ed — "Inform  me  friend  is  Alonzo  the  Peruvian  confined  in  tliis 
dungeon  "  "  He  is  "  "  I  must  speak  with  him  "  "  You  must  not "  "  He 
is  my  friend  "  "  Not  if  he  were  your  brother  "  "  What  is  to  be  his  late  " 
"  He  dies  at  sunrise  "  "  Ha  then  I  am  come  in  time  " — I  find  it  profita- 
ble sometimes  to  indulge  in  such  rellections  as  these  All  men  arc  mor- 
tal   Since  the  Creation  only  two  men  have  escaped  death    Therefore 

§  180.  Repeat  Eule  IV.,  relating  to  cmleslona. 


THE   DASH.  135 

however  likely  it  may  appear  that  I  shall  hold  a  perpetual  lease  of  life 
the  time  comes  when  like  my  fathers  I  must  close  my  eyes  on  this 
pleasant  world — ^I  go  but  when  I  come  'twill  be  the  burst  of  ocean  in 
the  earthquake  I  go  but  not  to  leap  the  gulf  alone — The  ambition  of 
man  constantly  making  him  dissatisfied  with  what  he  has  and  inspiring 
him  with  desires  for  what  is  beyond  his  reach  his  envy  which  renders  a 
neighbor's  prosperity  odious  in  his  eyes  his  selfishness  which  robs  him 
of  the  purest  enjoyment  God  has  ever  vouchsafe^  that  of  doing  good 
to  his  species  these  ignoble  passions  entail  on  him  a  succession  of  mis- 
eries and  make  life  one  scene  of  trial — I  pause  for  a  reply  None  Then 
none  have  I  offended — The  bounding  of  Satan  over  the  walls  of  Para- 
dise his  sitting  in  the  shape  of  a  cormorant  on  the  tree  of  life  his 
alighting  among  the  herd  of  animals  which  are  so  beautifully  represent- 
ed as  playing  about  Adam  and  Eve  his  transforming  himself_^  into  dif- 
ferent shapes  in  order  to  hear  their  conversation  all  these  circumstances 
give  an  agreeable  surprise  to  the  reader — Copernicus  was  instructed  in 
that  school  where  it  is  fortunate  when  one  can  be  well  taught  the  family 
circle 

Anger.  As  the  whirlwind  in  its  fury  teareth  up  trees  and  deformeth 
the  face  of  nature  or  as  an  earthquake  in  its  convulsions  overturneth 
cities  so  the  rage  of  an  angry  man  throweth  mischief  around  him  danger 
and  destruction  wait  on  his  hand    Dodsley 

Under  §  1V9.  Merciful  yes  merciful  as  the  hawk  is  to  the  dove — 
Prominent  among  the  philosophers  of  antiquity  is  Socrates  Socrates  who 
looked  beyond  the  absurd  fables  of  his  country's  mythology  Socrates  who 
lifted  his  voice  in  behalf  of  truth  and  died  a  martyr  in  its  cause  Socrates 
who  advanced  as  far  in  moral  enlightenment  as  it  was  possible  for  the 
human  intellect  to  do  unaided  by  a  revelation  from  on  high — "  I  would 
not  return  if  if"  "  If  you  thought  I  would  allow  you  to  remain  "  inter- 
rupted the  earl  harshly — Shall  I  who  have  spent  my  life  in  the  camp  I 
who  have  shed  my  blood  in  defence  of  my  country  \  who  am  a  soldier 
by  experience  as  well  as  profession  shall  I  compare  myself  with  this 
flaunting  captain — He  has  a  weakness  a  weakness  of  the  head  as  well 
as  the  stomach — "I  will  inquire  into  the  matter  and  if  if"  "  Well  if" 
broke  in  my  father  impatient  of  delay — He  is  full  of  love  love  for  him- 
self— Our  friend  is  afflicted  with  a  grievous  consumption  a  consumption 
of  victuals 

Under  §  180.  A  series  of  observations  made  in  18  showed  that  of 
one  hundred  shooting  stars  four  had  an  elevation  from  the  earth  of  1 — 3 
miles  fifteen  of  3  6  miles  twenty-two  of  6  10  miles  thirty-five  of  10 
15  miles  thirteen  of  15  20  miles  three  of  about  30  miles  one  of  45  46 
miles  one  of  about  60  miles  and  one  of  over  100  miles — In  the  year 
I  visited  L— In  the  winter  of  1849  50  I  studied  this  subject  attentively 
and  obtained  much  useful  information  respecting  it  from  Goldsmith's 
^  History  of  the  Earth  and  Animated  Nature  "  chapa  4  9 


136  PAEENTIIESES. 

LESSON    XXVII. 

PARENTHESES.  —  BRACKETS. 

§  181.  The  word  Parenthesis  means  a  putting  in  he- 
side,  and  the  term  is  applied  to  a  word  or  words  introduced 
into  a  sentence  for  the  purpose  of  explaining,  modifying,  or 
adding  to,  the  leading  proposition,  but  inserted  abruptly,  in 
such  a  way  as  to  break  the  connection  between  dependent 
parts  and  interfere  with  their  harmonious  flow.  Such  an 
expression  is  placed  between  curves,  known  as  parentheses 
or  marks  of  parenthesis.  It  is  indicated  in  reading  by  using 
a  lower  tone  of  voice  and  more  rapid  delivery  than  are  em- 
ployed for  the  rest  of  the  passage.  An  example  is  pre- 
sented in  the  following  sentence :  "  Shall  we  continue  (alas 
that  I  should  be  constrained  to  ask  the  question ! )  in  a  coui-se 
so  dangerous  to  health,  so  enfeebling  to  mind,  so  destructive 
to  character  ?  " 

§  182.  Old  writers,  with  whom  intricate  constructions 
and  violations  of  unity  were  common,  made  frequent  use  of 
parentheses.  The  obvious  disadvantage,  however,  of  intro- 
ducing propositions  witliin  propositions,  a  practice  which 
draws  off  the  reader's  attention  from  the  main  point,  and 
too  often  involves  the  sacrifice  of  perspicuity,  harmony,  and 
strength,  has  led  late  critics  to  advise  the  use  of  less  in- 
tricate sentences,  and  to  proscribe  parentheses  as  incom- 
patible with  nervousness  of  style. 

"  On  some  occasions,"  says  Blair,  "  these  [parentheses]  may  have 
a  spirited  appearance ;  as  prompted  by  a  certain  vivacity  of  thought, 
wliich  can  ghince  happily  aside  as  it  is  going  along.  But,  for  the  most 
part,  their  cficct  is  extremely  bad;  being  a  sort  of"  wheels  within  wheels ; 
sentences  in  the  midst  of  sentences ;  the  perplexed  method  of  disposing 

§  181.  What  docs  the  word  parenthesis  mean  ?  To  what  Is  the  term  appUcd  f 
What  marks  are  used  to  enclose  such  cxpreesions  ?  How  are  they  Indicated  in 
rending? 

§182.  By  whom  were  pnrentheBes  often  employed?  What  ia  the  advice  of 
later  critics,  and  on  wliat  is  it  based  ?    Wliat  is  the  eubstancc  of  Blair's  rcmarlt 


PARENTUESES.  137 

of  some  thought,  which  a  writer  wants  art  to  introduce  in  its  proper 
place."  Watts,  also,  remarks  on  this  subject,  "  Do  not  suffer  every  oc- 
casional thought  to  carry  you  aAvay  into  a  long  parenthesis,"  The  pro- 
priety of  such  observations  is  so  evident  that  good  writers  at  the  present 
day  avoid  formal  parentheses  as  much  as  possible.  The  marks  by  which 
they  are  denoted  have  now,  therefore,  become  comparatively  rare ;  but  in 
the  cases  covered  by  the  following  rule  they  can  not  well  be  dispensed  with. 

§  183.  Rule  I. — Marks  of  parenthesis  are  used  to  en- 
close words  which  explain,  modify,  or  add  to,  the  leading 
proposition  of  a  sentence,  when  introduced  in  such  a  way  as 
to  break  the  connection  between  dependent  parts  and  inter- 
fere with  their  harmonious  flow. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  Matilda  (such  was  the  lady's  name)  smiled  sweetly  at  this  address. 

2.  The  doctrine  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  and  a  system  of  future  re- 
wards and  punishments  was  taught  explicitly  (at  least  as  explicitly  as 
could  be  expected  of  an  ancient  philosopher)  by  Socrates. 

3.  Are  you  still  (I  fear  from  the  tone  of  your  letter  you  must  be)  trou- 
bled with  these  apprehensions  ? 

§  184.  Doubts  may  sometimes  arise  as  to  whether  it  is  better  to  use 
parentheses,  or  commas,  as  prescribed  in  §  122  for  parenthetical  clauses. 
The  latter  point  is  preferable  when  the  words  in  question  coalesce  readily 
with  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  but  is  inadmissible  when  a  complete  or  in- 
dependent member  is  inserted  ;  particularly  if  it  is  brought  in  abruptly 
or  its  construction  differs  from  that  of  the  parts  between  which  it  stands. 
The  following  examples  will  illustrate  these  cases. 

1.  Every  star,  as  we  infer  from  indisputable  facts,  is  the  centre  of  a 
planetary  system. 

2.  Every  star  (and  this  great  truth  is  inferred  from  indisputable  facts)  is 
the  centre  of  a  planetary  system. 

§  185.  The  proper  place  for  parentheses  is  the  middle  of  a  sentence ; 
yet  loose  writers  sometimes  place  them  at  the  end;  as,  "Such  is  the 
wonderful  account  given  by  travellei-s  of  the  natives  of  Patagonia  (trav- 
ellers, you  know,  are  sometimes  fond  of  the  marvellous)." 


on  the  subject  ?  What  does  Watts  advise  ?  What  is  said  of  the  use  of  parentheses 
at  the  present  day  ? 

§  1&3.  Repeat  Rule  T,,  relating  to  the  purpose  for  which  marks  of  parentheses 
are  used. 

§  184.  What  is  BometimeF  a  matter  of  question  ?  When  is  the  comma  prefer- 
able ?    When  is  it  inadmissible  ? 

§  185.  What  is  the  proper  place  for  parentheses  ?  Where  do  loose  writere 
lometimes  place  them  ? 


138  PAEENTHESES. 

§  186.  Expressions  of  approbation  or  disapprobation  introduced  into 
reports  of  speeches  as  having  been  made  by  the  audience,  as  well  as  re- 
marks by  the  person  reporting  or  publishing  them,  must  be  enclosed  iu 
parentheses;  as, 

This  doctrine,  as  long  as.  I  have  breath,  I  shall  oppose.  (Hear ! 
hear  ! )  I  shall  oppose  it  in  this  hall ;  I  shall  oppose  it  on  the  hustings. 
(Cheers,  mingled  with  hisses.)  Nor  shall  I  hesitate  to  publish  to  tho 
world  on  whom  rests  the  responsibility  of  advocating  so  arbitrary,  un- 
just, and  in  all  respects  infamous,  a  measure.  (Cries  of  *'  Order ! " 
"  Order ! "  from  all  parts  of  the  hall.) 

§  187.  In  dramatic  compositions,  directions  to  the  performers  and  all 
other  parts  not  strictly  belonging  to  the  dialogue  are  enclosed  in  paren- 
theses ;  except  the  names  of  the  speakers,  as  they  successively  take  up 
the  discourse,  which,  constituting  side-heads,  are  set  off  by  a  period  and 
dash,  or  by  a  period  alone ;  thus  : — 

Cicero. — Expel  him,  lictors.     Clear  the  senate-house. 

( TJiey  surround  him.) 
Catiline  {sU'uggUng  through  them). — I  go, — but  not  to  leap   the 
gulf  alone. 
You  build  my  funeral-pile,  but  your  best  blood 
Shall  quench  its  flame.— -(7b  the  lictors)  Back,  slaves! — I  will 
return. 

{lie  rushes  out.     TJie  scene  closes.) 

§  188.  Rule  IT. — Matter  within  parentheses  must  be 
punctuated  just  as  it  would  be  in  any  other  position,  except 
before  the  last  parenthetical  mark.  There,  if  the  matter 
introduced  is  complete  in  itself  as  regards  both  construction 
and  se)ise,  an  interrogation-point,  an  exclamation-point,  or 
(in  the  case  of  the  remarks  and  directions  alluded  to  in 
§  186, 187)  a  period  may  be  used,  according  to  the  character 
of  the  sentence.  If  the  parenthesis  is  incomplete  in  sense, 
however,  there  must  be  no  point  before  the  last  mark.  Sec 
the  examples  under  §  186, 187,  as  well  as  the  following  :— 

1.  Men  are  born  equal  (here  T  see  you  frowning,  biting  your  lip,  and 
shaking  your  head) ;  it  is  circumstances  only  that  cast  their  lota  in 
different  stations. 


§  186.  In  reports  of  specchcf",  what  arc  parentheses  nsecl  for  enclosing  ? 
§  187.  In  dramatic  compoHitions,  wliat  an;  cncloscfl  within  pareuthesea  ?  What 
points  follow  tiie  names  of  the  spealicrs,  used  as  side-heads  ? 
S  188.  Repeat  Rule  II.,  relating  to  matter  within  pareutheses. 


PARENTHESES.— BEACKETS.  139 

2.  Robert  is  wasting  his  time  (was  it  for  this  his  family  made  such  sacri- 
fices ?)  in  idle  amusements. 

3.  The  poets  (tender-hearted  swains  !)  have  portrayed  love  as  no  prose- 
writer  has  ever  been  able  to  paint  it. 

§  189.  Rule  III. — Marks  of  parenthesis  are  not  neces- 
sarily accompanied  mtli  other  points ;  neither,  on  the  other 
hand,  do  they  supersede  the  latter.  Wliatever  point  would 
be  needed  between  the  parts  if  the  parenthesis  were  left 
out,  must  be  retained.  If  a  colon  or  semicolon  is  required, 
it  must  stand  after  the  last  parenthetical  mark ;  if  a  comma, 
it  must  occupy  the  same  position  unless  a  parenthetical 
clause  immediately  precedes,  in  which  case  it  must  stand 
before  the  first  mark  of  parenthesis. 

"  Matilda  (such  was  the  lady's  name)  smiled  sweetly  at  this  address." 
Here  we  have  no  comma,  because  none  would  be  needed  if  the  paren- 
thesis were  left  out ; — "  Matilda  smiled  sweetly  at  this  address." 

"  If  a  tree  is  known  by  its  fruits  (and  who  that  beheves  Scripture 
can  doubt  it  ?),  what  must  we  think  of  these  men  ?  "  Here  the  comma 
required  after  the  hypothetical  clause  is  inserted  after  the  last  mark  of 
parenthesis. 

"  Are  you  still,  my  friend,  (I  fear  from  the  tone  of  your  letter  you 
must  be)  troubled  with  these  apprehensions  ? "  Here  the  required 
comma  is  placed  before  the  parenthesis,  because  the  parenthetical  clause, 
immediately  precedes. 


§  190.  Rule  IV. — An  interrogation-point  within  paren- 
theses is  often  placed  after  an  assertion  or  supposition,  to 
throw  doubt  on  it ;  and  an  exclamation-point  similarly  en- 
closed is  used  to  denote  wonder,  irony,  or  contempt;  as, 
"When  I  get  the  office  (?),  I  shall  spend  my  leisure  time  in 
reading." — "This  accurate  scholar  (!),  who  went  to  Eton 
and  graduated  at  Cambridge,  has  actually  made  a  dozen  gram- 
matical mistakes  within  the  compass  of  one  short  paragraph." 


BRACKETS. 
§  191.  Brackets  are  used  principally  in  quoted  pas- 

§  189.  What  does  Rule  ITI.  say  respecting  the  use  of  other  marks  when  parcn- 
theses  are  employed  ?  Where  must  a  colon  or  semicolon,  if  required,  stand  ? 
Where,  a  comma  ?    Give  the  examples,  and  show  why  they  are  so  punctuated. 

§  190.  Repeat  Rule  IV.,  relating  to  the  enclosing  of  interrogation-points  and 
•xclamation-pointa  within  parentheses. 


140  BRACKETS. 

sages,  to  enclose  words  improperly  omitted  by  the  author  or 
introduced  to  correct  a  mistake.  Sometimes,  like  parentheses, 
they  enclose  an  observation,  an  explanatory  word,  or  a  crit- 
ical remark,  that  does  not  belong  to  the  quotation.  Tliey 
are  also  employed  in  dictionaries  and  similar  works  to  en- 
close the  figured  pronunciation  of  a  word,  the  primitive  from 
which  it  is  derived,  or  a  reference  to  some  other  term. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  He  might  have  been  happy,  and  now  [he]  is  convinced  of  it. 

2.  A  variety  of  pleasing  objects  meet  [meets]  the  eye. 

3.  Mrs.  Hemans  was  born  to  bo  a  great  poet.  [She  may  have  been 
bom  to  be  a  great  poet ;  but,  if  so,  we  can  not  help  thinking  that  she 
woefully  missed  her  mark.] 

4.  Petit-maitre  [pet'te-mu'tr]  n.     A  coxcomb. 

As  regards  the  points  to  be  used  in  connection  with  brackets,  and 
the  proper  method  of  punctuating  the  matter  contained  within  them, 
the  same  principles  apply  as  those  laid  down  for  parentheses  in  §  188, 189. 

When  an  independent  sentence  is  enclosed,  as  in  Example  3  given 
above,  a  period,  an  interrogation-point,  or  an  exclamation-point  must  be 
used  before  the  last  bracket,  according  to  the  character  of  the  sentence. 

EXERCISE. 
In  the  following  sentences,  supply  the  points  requut?d : — 

Under  §  183,  185.  Is  it  I  must  take  the  liberty  of  asking  because  iio 
law  touches  the  case  that  you  thus  violate  justice — For  I  know  that  in 
me  that  is  in  my  flesh  dwcUcth  no  good  thing — He  had  not  been  there 
so  I  was  informed  by  those  who  lived  in  the  neighborhood  since  the  year 
1840 — Ho  Mr.  Brown  had  never  before  found  himself  in  so  embarrass- 
ing a  position  He  was  overcome  and  he  begged  the  company  wouUl  not 
think  he  was  exaggerating  his  feelings  with  this  unexpected  mark  of 
esteem — I  expected  to  find  every  thing  that  great  wealth  for  my  friend 
is  a  man  of  property  and  taste  for  his  taste  is  admitted  to  be  unex- 
ceptionable could  bestow— Here  we  took  dinner  though  conscience  will 
hardly  allow  me  to  dignify  sour  bread  and  nmsty  eggs  by  so  high- 
sounding  a  name 

Under  §  186,  187.  I  agree  with  the  honorable  gentleman  Mr.  Allen 
that  it  is  pleasing  to  every  generous  mind  to  obey  the  dictates  of  sym- 
pathv  but  sir  truth  and  justice  impose  on  us  higher  obligations  Length- 
ened'  applause  and  confusion  in  the  galleries  during  which  several  t^en- 


§191.  For  what  are  brackets  used?  What  use  is  made  of  them  in  diction- 
nrics?  What  points  may  be  used  in  connection  with  brackctt»  ?  How  must  the 
matter  they  enclose  be  punctuated?  When  an  Independent  sentence  is  enclosed, 
what  point  must  precede  the  last  bracket  t 


APOSTROPHE. — HYPHEN. QUOTATION-POINTS.  141 

tences  were  lost  Mr  Chairman  I  can  not  vote  for  this  resolution  Cheers 
I  owe  it  not  only  to  my  country  but  to  the  rights  of  man  of  which  so 
much  is  said  to  preserve  the  wise  and  long-established  policy  of  the 
former  and  to  stand  by  the  principle  of  non-intervention  as  a  high  moral 
defence  and  security  for  the  latter  The  speaker  took  his  seat  amid  loud 
applause 

Sentinel    Go  in    Exit  Sentinel 

RoLLA  calls  Alonzo  Alonzo 

Enter  Alonzo  speaking  os  he  comes  in 

Alonzo     How    Is  my  hour  elapsed     Well  I  am  ready 

Under  §  188.  The  honorable  gentleman  on  the  right  Mr  Doublcday 
of  Louisiana  has  overlooked  one  important  point — I  wish  and  why  should 
I  deny  it  that  this  compliment  had  been  paid  to  any  one  rather  than  my- 
self—She had  managed  this  matter  so  well  oh  she  was  the  most  artful 
of  women  that  my  father's  heart  was  gone  before  I  suspected  it  was  in 
danger — Consider  and  oh  may  the  consideration  sink  deep  into  your 
heart  that  one  crime  inevitably  leads  the  way  to  others 

Under  §  189.  While  we  earnestly  desire  the  approbation  of  our  fel- 
low-men and  this  desire  the  better  feelings  of  our  nature  can  not  fail  to 
awaken  we  should  shrink  from  gaining  it  by  dishonorable  means — 
Such  was  the  creed  of  the  Stoics  see  Tennemann's  Manual  Vol  II  p  230 
and  their  principles  were  for  the  most  part  strictly  carried  out  in  life — 
The  baron  left  to  himself  malice  itself  could  not  wish  him  a  worse  ad- 
viser resolved  on  a  desperate  course — Could  he  possibly  have  committed 
this  crime  I  am  sure  he  could  not  which  as  all  will  acknowledge  is  at 
variance  with  the  whole  tenor  of  his  life 

Under  §  190.  This  would-be  scholar  once  declared  that  the  Iliad 
was  the  noblest  poem  in  the  Latin  language — Her  intellectual  beauty  is 
certainly  surpassed  only  by  her  physical  charms — Entering  into  conver- 
sation with  his  most  Christian  Majesty  I  was  shocked  to  hear  views  ad- 
vanced which  would  almost  have  disgraced  a  heathen 

Under  §  191.  A  man  had  four  sons  and  he  divided  his  property  be- 
tween among  them — Be  more  anxious  to  acquire  knowledge  than  about 
showing  to  show  it — He  has  little  more  of  the  scholar  besides  than  the 
name — Some  alas  too  few  for  the  well-being  of  society  place  their  bliss 
in  action  some  in  ease — Elude  Latin  eludo  v.  t.  to  escape — Ennui  oug- 
we  weariness  dulness  of  spirit — Peter-wort  u.  A  plant.  See  Saint 
Peter's  Wort 


LESSON    XXVIII. 

APOSTROPHE. — HYPHEN. — QUOTATION-POINTS. 

Besides  the  grammatical  points,  various  other  marks 
are  employed  in  written  and  printed  matter;  the  princi- 
pal of  these  are  the  Apostrophe  ('),  the  Hyphen  (-),  and 
Quotation-points  ("     "). 

Besides  the  grammatical  points,  wliat  otUer  marks  are  employed  ? 


142  THE   APOSTEOPHE. 

THE   APOSTROPHE. 
§  192.    The  word  apostkophe  means  a  turning  from  or 
away.     The  mark  so  called  has  the  same  form  as  the  comma, 
and  differs  from  it  only  in  being  placed  above  the  line. 

RULE    I.— 7OMISSION   OP  LETTEES. 

§  193.  Tlie  apostrophe  is  used  to  denote  the  omission  of 
a  letter  or  letters ;  as,  His,  IHl,  o'er,  ihd'. 

The  period  and  the  dash  are  also  employed,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  for  this  purpose.  The  following  distinction,  however,  is  to  be  ob- 
served : — 

1.  The  period  is  employed  mainly  in  abbreviations  of  titles,  proper 
nanies,  technical  and  tabular  terms,  and  foreign  words  ;  as,  P.  M.  (?., 
for  Postmaster  General  ;^-Jas.  K.  Polk,  for  James  Knox  Polk ; — 
D.  F.,  for  Deo  volenie,  God  willing  ; — Jw.,  for  bushel. 

2.  The  dash  is  used  when  it  is  desired  to  allude  to  an  object  without 
making  known  what  it  is;  as,  "In  the  year  18 — ,  the  usually  quiet 
village  of  L was  thrown  into  a  state  of  excitement,"  &c. 

3.  In  most  other  cases,  that  is,  when  the  object  is  merely  to  abbreviate 
common  English  words  which  do  not  fall  under  the  above  classes,  or 
to  contract  two  words  into  one,  the  apostrophe  is  employed. 

RULE    n. — ^POSSESSIVE   CASE. 

§  194.  The  apostrophe  is  used  to  denote  the  possessive 
case  of  nouns ;  as,  Indians  treasures  ; — Icings'  daughters. 

To  form  the  possessive  case,  singular  nouns  take  '«/  as,  fanafi 
flight;  Thomases  unbelief.  Plural  nouns  ending  in  s  take  the  apos- 
trophe alone  ;  as,  the  cities^  gates :  other  plural  nouns  take  '«  /  as,  men^s 
sorrows.  But  if,  by  reason  of  a  succession  of  s  sounds,  or  ft'om  any  other 
cause,  euphony  would  be  violated  by  the  introduction  of  an  «,  the  apos- 
trophe alone  is  used  in  forming  the  possessive ;  as,  Moses*  staff ;— for 
conscience'  sake  ; — Feli£  speech. 

§  192.  What  does  tho  word  apostrophe  mean  ?  How  does  the  mark  so  called 
differ  from  the  comma  ? 

§  193.  Eepeat  Eule  I.,  relating  to  the  omission  of  letters.  What  other  points 
are  employed  for  this  purpose  ?  In  what  case  Is  the  period  used  ?  In  what,  tho 
dash  ?    In  what,  the  apostrophe  ? 

§  194.  For  what  other  purpose  Is  the  apostrophe  used,  according  to  Eole  n.  ? 
How  do  singular  nouns  form  their  possessive  case  ?  How,  plural  nouns  ?  When 
is  the  apostrophe  alouo  used  in  forming  the  possessive  ? 


THE   HYPHEN,  143 

§  195.  Observe  that  this  rule  applies  only  to  nouns.  The  possessive 
case  of  the  personal  pronouns,  whether  ending  in  s  or  not,  must  have  no 
apostrophe ;  as,  mine,  her,  hers,  ours,  yours,  theirs. 

§  196.  The  apostrophe  followed  by  s  is  also  used  to  form  the  plural 
of  the  names  of  letters,  figures,  and  signs ;  as,  "  Dot  your  Ps,  cross  your 
fs,  make  your  6's  better,  and  insert  two  + '«." 


THE   HYPHEN. 

§  197.  The  word  hyphen  is  derived  from  two  Greek 
words  meaning  under  one  ;  and  the  mark  so  caUed  is  used 
to  denote  that  the  parts  between  which  it  stands  belong  to 
one  and  the  same  word. 

RULE    I. — COMPOUND  EPITHETS   AND   SUBSTANTIVES. 

§  198.  The  hyphen  must  be  placed  between  words  that 
unite  to  form  a  single  epithet,  and  also  between  the  parts  of 
a  compound  substantive  when  each  receives  the  stress  of  the 
voice ;  as,  laughter-loving^  good-natured,  twenty-one,  never- 
to-be-forgotten,  glass-house,  self-conceit,  one^s-self 

§  199.  Compound  words,  however,  whose  parts  have  so  completely 
coalesced  that  they  have  but  one  accent,  are  written  without  the  hyphen; 
as,  watchman,  lapdog,  broadsword,  himself. 

RULE    II. — DISTINCTION   OP  WOEDS. 

§  200.  The  hyphen  is  used  to  distinguish  words  of  similar 
spelling,  but  different  prommciation  and  meaning ;  also,  to 
form  one  compound  term  of  words  which,  if  not  thus  united, 
would  have  a  different  signification. 

Thus,  re-creation  means  tlie  act  of  creating  again  ;  and,  when  the  word 
is  so  written,  the  first  e  is  long,  as  in  me.    If  we  omit  the  hyphen,  we 

§  195.  What  is  said  of  the  possessive  case  of  pronouns  ? 
§  196.  How  is  the  plural  of  the  names  of  letters,  figures,  and  signs,  formed  ? 
§  197.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  hypJien  f   What  does  the  mark  so 
tailed  denote  ? 

§  198.  Repeat  Eule  I.,  relating  to  compound  epithets  and  substantives. 

1 199.  What  compounds  are  written  without  the  hyphen  ? 

S  200.  For  what  other  purposes  is  the  hyphen  used,  according  to  Rule  IT.  ? 


144  THE   HYPHEN. 

have  recreation, — quite  a  different  word,  equivalent  to  relaxation,  amuM' 
ment ;  and  we  must  give  the  first  vowel  the  sound  of  e  in  met. 

The  words  monk's-hood  and  dogh-ear  will  serve  as  examples  of  the 
second  case  mentioned  in  the  rule.  Leave  out  the  hyphen,  and  we  no 
longer  have  the  familiar  plant  known  as  monk's-hood,  but  a  monk's  hood, 
that  is,  the  head-covering  of  a  monk.  Dog's-ear  means  the  comer  of  a 
leaf  turned  or  twisted  over ;  but  remove  the  connecting  mark,  and  we 
have  the  ear  of  a  dog. 

§  201.  The  hyphen  may  also  be  used  instead  of  the  diseresis,  to  de- 
note that  two  adjacent  vowels  do  not  unite  to  form  a  diphthong,  when 
these  vowels  respectively  terminate  a  prefix  and  commence  the  radical 
with  which  it  is  joined ;  as,  pre-exislent,  co-operate. 

RULE   III. — BETWEEN   SYLLABLES. 

§  202.  When,  from  want  of  space,  a  portion  of  a  word 
has  to  be  carried  to  a  new  line,  the  division  must  be  made 
after  a  complete  syllable,  and  the  hyphen  is  used  at  the  end 
of  the  line,  to  connect  the  separated  parts ;  as,  "  Vir- 

tue can  not  be  bought." 

§  203.  With  regard  to  Syllabicatiok,  or  the  division  of  words  into 
syllables,  it  is  proper  to  remark  that  two  systems  prevail.  The  English 
method  divides  on  the  vowels,  that  is,  without  reference  to  pronuncia- 
tion, throws  consonants  as  much  as  possible  into  the  beginning  of 
syllables ;  as,  me-lon,  wi-doio,  di-li-gent,  a-stro-no-my.  This  method,  as 
Webster  justly  remarks,  contradicts  the  very  definition  of  a  syllable. 
"  A  syllabic  in  pronunciation,"  says  this  author,  "  is  an  indivisible  thing ; 
and,  strange  as  it  may  appear,  what  is  indivisible  in  utterance  is  divided 
in  writing ;  when  the  very  purpose  of  dividing  words  into  syllables  in 
writing,  is  to  lead  the  learner  to  a  just  pronunciation."  Some  English 
writers,  however,  and  among  them  Lowth,  advocate  the  method  gener- 
ally adopted  in  this  country,  of  making  such  divisions  as  most  nearly 
exhibit  the  true  pronunciation.     According  to  this  system,  the  examples 


IlluHtrato  the  flr^t  case  with  tho  word  recreation.  Illustrate  the  second  with  tlio 
words  monJc's-hood  and  dog's-ear. 

§  201.  For  what  purpose  is  tho  hyphen,  like  tho  direresls,  sometimes  used  ?  In 
what  case  ? 

§  202.  Repeat  Rule  IH.,  relntinE:  to  the  use  of  the  hyphen  at  the  end  of  a  line. 

§203.  What  is  syllabication?  How  many  systems  prevail?  Describe  tho 
En^'llah  system.  What  does  Webster  say  of  it  ?  Describe  the  system  pursued  in 
this  country. 


QUOTATION-POINTS.  145 

given  above  would  be  divided  tlius :  mel-on,  wid-ow^  dil-i-gent^  as4ron-o. 
my.    A  few  rules  covering  most  cases  may  be  of  service. 

Rule  I. — Join  consonants  to  the  vowels  whose  sounds  they  modify  ; 
as,  ep-i-dem-ic,  an-i-mos-i-iy. 

Rule  II. — Let  prefixes  and  suffixes  form  distinct  syllables  when  this 
can  be  done  without  the  pronunciation's  being  misrepresented :  as,  re- 
jrrmi,  out-run  ;  rc-jed-ed,  not  re-jec-icd ;  form-er,  not  for-mer^  when  the 
meaning  is  one  that  forms. 

Rule  III. — In  the  case  of  compounds,  syllabic  divisions  should  fall 
between  the  simple  words  that  compose  them ;  as,  horse-man^  more-over, 
ge7iile-woman. 

Rule  IY. — The  terminations  ««/,  tiaJ.,  sion,  Hon,  clous,  iions,  and 
others  that  are  pronounced  as  one  syllable,  must  not  be  divided. 

§  204.  After  the  numerous  instances  in  which  it  has  just  been  so  em- 
ployed, it  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  the  hj^phen  is  used  by  lexicog- 
raphers and  others,  not  only  at  the  end  of  a  line,  but  wherever  they  de- 
sire to  show  the  syllables  of  which  a  word  is  composed. 


QUOTATIOiS'-POINTS. 
§  205.  Quotation-points,  called  in  French  and  some- 
times in  English,  from  the  name  of  the  person  who  first 
used  them,  Guillemets,  consist  of  two  inverted  commas 
and  two  apostrophes  ["  "].  They  are  used  to  enclose  words 
quoted  from  an  author  or  speaker,  or  represented  in  narra- 
tives as  employed  in  dialogue;  as,  "By  doing  nothing," 
says  an  old  writer,  "  men  learn  to  do  evil." — "  Quick !  quick  ! 
or  I  perish,"  shrieked  the  exhausted  hunter.  "  One  moment 
longer !  The  rope  has  come ! "  shouted  a  hundred  voices 
from  the  top  of  the  crag. 

When  the  substance  merely  is  given,  and  not  the  exact  words,  quo- 
tation-points are  unnecessary ;  as,  Diogenes  used  to  say  that  other  dogs 

In  dividing  into  syllables,  with  what  must  consonants  be  joined  ?  What  is 
eaid  about  prefixes  and  suffixes'  forming  distinct  syllables?  IIow  are  com- 
pounds divided  ?    What  terminations  must  not  be  divided  ? 

§  204.  Wliat  use  is  made  of  the  hyphen  by  lexicographers  ? 

§  205.  What  are  quotation-points  called  in  French  ?  Why  are  they  so  called  ? 
Of  what  do  they  consist  ?  What  are  they  used  to  enclose  ?  When  the  eubstauce 
1 


146  QUOTATION-POINTS. 

hit  their  enemies^  hut  that  lie  hit  his  friends  that  lie  migid  save  them. 
Had  the  exact  words  used  by  the  philosopher  been  given,  quotation- 
points  would  have  been  required.  Thus :  Diogenes  used  to  say,  "  Other 
dogs  bite  their  enemies  ;  but  I  bite  my  friends,  that  I  may  save  them." 

In  the  case  of  passages  cited  in  a  foreign  language,  titles  of  books, 
names  of  newspapers,  &c.,  some  writers  prefer  italics  to  quotation-points ; 
as,  "  Virgil's  Lahor  omnia  vincit  has  passed  into  a  proverb." — "  The 
Atlwnomm  has  a  well-written  review  of  Pearson's  History  of  the  Puri- 
tans:' 

§  206.  Matter  within  quotation-points  is  to  be  punctuated 
just  as  if  it  stood  in  any  other  position.  If  at  the  close  of  a 
quoted  passage  any  grammatical  point  is  required,  it  may  be 
placed  before  the  two  apostrophes  if  it  is  applicable  to  the 
extract  alone,  but  after  them  if  it  belongs  to  the  sentence 
or  member  as  a  whole;  as.  He  answered  briefly,  ^^Am  la 
knave  that  yoit  should  suspect  me  of  this  ?  " — Are  our  lots 
indeed  cast  "  in  the  brazen  age  "  ? 

§  207.  Single  Points  [*  ']  are  used  to  enclose  a  quotation 
within  a  passage  which  is-  itself  quoted ;  as,  "  The  great 
rule,"  says  Lavater,  "  of  moral  conduct,  or  ^  ethics ',  as  it  is 
styled  by  philosophers,  is  to  make  the  best  use  of  one's  time." 

If  within  a  passage  thus  enclosed  between  single  quotation-point-, 
there  is  occasion  to  introduce  another  extract,  double  points  are  useil 
for  the  sake  of  distinction;  as,  "King  Louis  asked  Joinville,  'Would 
you  rather  be  a  leper,  or  commit  what  the  church  calls  "  a  deadly 
sin"?'" 

§  208.  When  an  extract  consists  of  several  successive 
paragraphs,  inverted  commas  must  stand  at  the  commence- 
ment of  each,  but  the  apostrophes  are  not  used  till  the 
quotation  ends ;  as, 

merely  Is  given,  are  quotation-points  necessary?  For  what  do  some  writers 
prefer  italics  to  quotation-points  ? 

§  20G.  How  is  matter  within  quotation-points  punctuated  ?  If  a  grammatical 
point  is  required  at  the  close  of  a  passage,  how  must  it  be  placed  as  regards 
the  two  apostrophes  ? 

§  207.  What  arc  single  quotation-points  used  to  enclose  ?  If  within  a  pasMge 
thus  enclosed  another  extract  is  introduced,  how  must  it  be  denoted  ? 

§  308.  How  are  the  inverted  commas  and  apostrophes  used  in  an  extract  con' 
ilsting  of  several  paragraphs  ? 


APOSTROPHE. — HYPHEN. — QUOTATIOIT-POINTS.        147 

"  No  man  can  be  happy,  if  self  is  the  sole  object  of  his  thoughts  and 
Afishes. 

"  No  man  can  be  happy,  if  conscience  tells  him  that  he  has  left  a 
single  duty  unperformed. 

"  No  man  can  be  happy  who  is  destitute  of  good  principles  and  gen- 
erous feelings." 


LESSON   XXIX. 

EXERCISE   ON  THE  APOSTROPHE,  THE  HYPHEN,  AND  QUOTA- 
TION-POINTS. 

In  the  following  sentences,  supply  the  omitted  points 
and  marks : — 

Under  §  193.  He  whos  virtuous  and  pious  in  this  life  will  be  happy 
i  the  next — Tis  one  who  11  neer  forget  you — Tho  the  heavens  and  the 
earth  pass  away  truth  shall  live  forever — Oer  hill  through  vale  mid  snow 
een  tho  gainst  his  own  will  he  steadily  pursues  his  way — 1 11  take  a 
milder  medcine  than  revenge  for  Ive  lovd  her  as  few  have  lovd 

Under  §  194,  195.  Swans  down; — a  ladys  fan; — ladies  dresses; — 
childrens  hats  ; — Misses  shoes  ; — eagles  wings ; — All  Saints  Church. — 
Peters  wifes  mother  lay  sick  of  a  fever — Much  depends  on  this  princi- 
ples being  understood  and  these  rules  being  strictly  observed — Racines 
and  Comeilles  tragedies  hold  the  same  rank  in  French  literature  as 
Shakspeares  enjoy  in  English. — "  Mens  virtues  "  says  a  splenetic  writer 
"  like  angels  visits  are  few  and  far  between " — This  volume  of  Grays 
poems  is  neither  his  hers  yours  nor  theirs  it  is  either  mine  or  my 
brothers — A  few  moments  conversation  convinced  me  of  my  friends  sin- 
cerity— Xerxes  soldiers; — for  goodness  sake; — Croesus  son; — Musaeus 
songs ; — Hercules  sword 

Under  §  196.  Make  your/<?  better  give  your^«  the  same  slant  and 
let  your — s  be  of  the  same  length — A  supply  of  es  hs  gs  .s  and  ;s  must 
be  procured  from  the  foundery — Three  5s=five  3s 

Under  §  198.  At  twenty  one  my  sister  in  law  was  a  laughter  loving 
bright  eyed  pure  hearted  single  minded  girl — The  market  women  are 
bringing  in  an  abundance  of  water  melons  musk  melons  and  a  new 
variety  of  apple  called  seek  no  furthers — My  fellow  traveller  had  a  dare 
devil  look  that  made  me  regard  his  double  barrelled  pistols  with  some 
apprehension  and  wish  myself  safe  back  in  my  old  farm  house — Such 
bottle  of  small  beer  comparisons  ought  to  be  avoided — The  ladies  hats 
the  present  season  give  their  faces  a  bewitching  kiss  me  if  you  dare  ex- 
pression 

Under  §  199.  These  boatmen  are  allowed  to  sleep  in  the  daytime- 
She  makes  a  good  housewife— Gunpowder  for  sale 


148     APOSTROPHE. — HYPHEN. — QUOTATION-POINTS. 

Under  §  200,  201,  The  stolen  articles  were  restored — The  goods 
were  taken  from  one  warehouse  and  restored  in  another — Ilipe  fruits 
recreate  the  nostiils  with  their  aromatic  scent — Instead  of  reenforcing 
it  was  found  necessary  to  recreate  the  army — To  reform  public  abuses 
is  one  of  the  aims  of  every  true  patriot — The  troops  were  reformed  into 
a  hollow  square — My  health  is  reestablished — Articles  are  sometimes 
reexported  —  Those  two  bodies  were  thus  reunited  —  What  mortal 
knows  his  preexistent  state — We  have  been  gathering  wolfs  bane  and 
bears  foot 

Under  §  203.  Divide  the  following  worth  into  syllahles  bi/  m^ans  of 
hyphens : — Helen,  never,  every,  abomination,  apostolical^  trinitarian, 
heretic,  ejecting,  reflected,  lioness,  poetaster,  preexistent,  transacted, 
obvious,  nevertheless,  notwithstanding,  official,  courageous,  officious, 
palatial,  paleaceous,  occasion,  termination,  adhesion,  meandered,  anathe- 
matizing. 

Under  §  205.  All  things  rare  and  brilliant  says  Goldsmith  in  his 
History  of  Man  and  Quadrupeds  will  ever  continue  to  be  fashionable 
while  men  derive  greater  advantage  from  opulence  than  virtue — After 
Phocion  was  condemned  to  death  one  of  his  friends  asked  him  if  he  had 
any  message  to  leave  his  son  Tell  him  said  the  magnanimous  patriot  to 
serve  his  country  as  faithfully  as  I  have  done  and  to  forget  that  she  re- 
warded my  services  with  an  unjust  death — Every  day  thousands  are 
going  to  that  bourne  from  which  no  traveller  returns — This  morning's 
courier  contains  a  full  description  of  the  Great  Eastern  the  largest  vessel 
in  the  world — The  British  Critic  has  an  able  article  on  Bonners  Inquiry 
into  the  Origin  of  Language  and  a  lengthy  review  of  the  same  authors 
Hints  on  the  Subject  of  lleform 

Under  §  206.  Then  said  he  Lo  I  come — The  prose  of  Tasso  is  placed 
by  Corniani  almost  on  a  level  with  his  poetry  for  beauty  of  diction  We 
find  in  it  he  says  dignity  of  rhythm  and  elegance  purity  without  aft'ec- 
tution  and  perspicuity  witliout  vulgarity — We  naturally  ask  How  can 
these  things  be — Can  any  one  help  admiring  the  great  genius  of  him 
whom  all  Europe  designates  as  the  man  of  destiny — We  can  only  weep 
and  cry  with  the  poet  Alas  poor  Yorick 

Under  §  20Y,  208.  "  Hallam  justly  remarks  There  is  more  of  the 
conventional  tone  of  amorous  song  than  of  real  emotion  in  Surreys 
poetry    The 

Easy  sighs  such  as  men  draw  in  love 

are  not  like  the  deep  sorrows  of  ]*ctrarch  or  the  fiery  transports  of  the 
Castilians" — "  The  tale  made  every  ear  which  heard  it  tingle  and  every 
lioart  thrill  with  horror  It  was  in  the  language  of  Ossian  the  song  of 
death  " 

"  The  history  of  the  present  king  of  Great  Britain  is  a  history  of  re- 
peated injuries  and  usurpations  all  having  in  direct  object  the  establish- 
ment of  an  absolute  tyranny  over  these  States  To  prove  this  let  facts  be 
submitted  to  a  candid  world 

He  has  refused  his  assent  to  laws  the  most  wholesome  and  necessary 
for  the  public  good 

He  has  dissolved  Representative  Houses  repeatedly  for  opposing  with 
manly  lirnuiess  his  invasions  on  the  rights  of  the  people 


ACCENTS.  149 

He  has  made  judges  dependent  on  his  will  alone  for  the  tenure  of 
their  offices  and  the  amount  and  payment  of  their  salaries 

He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  new  offices  and  sent  hither  swarms  of 
officers  to  harass  our  people  and  eat  out  their  substance 


LESSON    XXX. 

OTHER  MAEKS   USED   IN   WRITING   AND   PRINTING. 

§  209.  Besides  the  marks  already  described,  there  are 
others  occasionaHy  used  for  different  pm'poses,  as  follows : — 

I.  Accents,  or  marks  placed  over  vowels  to  indicate 
their  pronunciation.     They  are  three  in  number : — 

1 .  The  Acute  Accent  ['lis  placed  oAcr  the  vowel  e  in  some  words  from 
the  French  language,  to  indicate  that  it  is  not  silent,  but  has  the 
sound  of  a  in  cane  ;  as,  conde^  hal  jKire. 

It  is  used  by  elocutionists  to  denote  the  rising  inflection ;  as,  "  Arc 
ihey  here  r' 

Placed  after  a  syllable,  it  shows  that  the  accent  or  stress  of  the 
voice  falls  thereon  ;  as,  dement^  pldlo^oplicr. 

2.  The  Grave  Accent  [  ^  ]  is  sometimes  placed  over  the  vowel  c  in  poetry, 
to  denote  that  it  must  not  be  suppressed  in  pronunciation ;  as, 

"  The  biniised  sea-wccd  wastes  away  ; 
Its  atoms  on  the  hreezes  ride.'" 

By  elocutionists  it  is  used  in  contradistinction  to  the  acute,  to  de- 
note the  falling  inflection  ;  as,  "  They  are  /icrc." 

3.  The  Circumflex  Accent  ['  ]  is  placed  by  lexicographers  over  certain 
vowels,  to  indicate  a  peculiar  sound ;  as,  hall,  marine,  bidl. 

Writers  on  oratory  use  it  to  denote  a  wave,  or  combination  of  the 
rising  and  tlie  falling  inflection  in  the  pronunciation  of  the  same 
syllable ;  as,  "  It  is  not  he:  it  is  she.'''' 


§  209.  What  are  accents  ?  How  many  are  there  ?  What  are  they  called  ?  Over 
what  vowel  its  the  acute  accent  somethnes  placed  ?  In  words  derived  from  what 
language  ?  So  placed,  what  docs  it  indicate  ?  For  what  is  it  used  by  clocution- 
i3f  s  ?  Placed  after  a  syllable,  what  does  it  show  ?  Over  what  vowel  is  the  grave 
accent  sometimes  placed  in  poetry?  For  what  purpose ?  How  do  elocutionista 
use  it  ?  For  what  is  the  circumflex  accent  used  by  lexicographers  ?  For  what, 
by  elocutionists  ? 


150        QUANTITY,    EMPHASIS,   AND  DIVISION  MABKS. 

IL  Quantity-Maeks.     These  are  two  in  number : — 

1.  The  Macron  [^],  placed  over  a  vowel  to  denote  its  long  sound;  as, 
faic^  mUe^  note,  Helidgahcdus. 

2.  The  Breve  [ "  ],  placed  over  a  vowel  to  denote  its  short  sound ;  as, 
fat^  met,  ndt^  HeliogQbalus. 

III.  Emphasis-Makks,  used  generally  at  the  beginning 
of  paragraphs,  to  attract  the  special  attention  of  the  reader. 
They  are  found  in  newspapers,  cards,  handbills,  &c.,  but 
rarely  in  books.     They  are, 

1.  The  Index,  or  Hand  [  ^^  ]. 

2.  The  ASTERISM  [  ^le**  ]. 

IV.  Division-Marks,  which  denote  the  commencement 
of  a  new  branch  of  the  subject.  The  marks  generally  used 
for  this  purpose  are, 

1.  The  Paragraph  [  ^  ],  rarely  found  in  modem  books,  but  common  in 
the  Bible  and  other  old  publications.  The  beginning  of  a  new  sub- 
ject  is  now  indicated  simply  by  a  break  ;  that  is,  by  commencing  on 
a  new  line,  a  little  to  the  right.  The  word  paragraph  is  derived  from 
the  Greek;  and  literally  means  a  marginal  note,  something  vfritien 
near  or  alongside. 

2.  The  Section  [  §  ],  the  mark  for  which  seems  to  be  a  combination  of 
two  s\  standing  for  signum  seciio7iis,  ilie  sign  of  the  section.  This 
mark  is  placed  before  subdivisions  of  books  in  connection  with  num- 
bers, to  facilitate  reference ;  it  is  so  used  throughout  this  volume. 

V.  Reference-Marks,  used  to  connect  a  word  or  words 
in  the  text  with  remarks  in  the  margin,  or  at  the  bottom, 
of  the  page  on  which  they  occur.  Their  names  are  given 
below,  in  the  order  in  which,  by  the  common  consent  of 
l^rinters,  they  are  introduced. 


How  many  quantity-markB  are  there  ?  What  are  they  caUed  ?  What  doe« 
the  macron  denote  ?    What,  the  breve  ? 

Where  do  emphasis-marks  generally  stand  ?  For  what  are  they  used  f  Name 
and  describe  them. 

What  do  divlsion-marka  denote?  Name  them.  Where  Is  the  paragraph 
found  ?  Is  it  used  in  modem  publications  ?  How  is  the  beginning  of  a  new  sub- 
ject now  indicated  ?  From  what  language  is  the  word  paragraph  derived  ? 
Wliat  does  it  mean  ?  From  what  is  the  section  formed  ?  How  is  this  mark  used  ? 

For  what  arc  reference-marks  employed  ?    Give  their  names  in  the  order  in 


MAKKS   OF   ELLIPSIS. — ^BKACE. — DIJSEESIS.  151 


1.  The  Asterisk * 

2.  The  Obelisk,  or  Dagger      .     f 

3.  The  Double  Dagger    ,    .    .  X 


4.  The  Section § 

5.  Parallels || 

6.  The  Paragraph ^ 


When  more  than  six  reference-marks  are  required,  some  printers 
double  and  treble  those  just  enumerated.  The  better  way,  however,  is 
to  use  small  figures  or  letters,  technically  called  superiors. 

VI.  Maeks  of  Ellipsis,  [ ],[ ],or  [*  *  *  *], 

are  used  to  show  that  letters  are  omitted  from  a  word,  words 
from  a  sentence,  sentences  from  a  paragraph,  or  entke  para- 
graphs and  chapters  from  a  work;  as, 

1.  "The  k — g  (k..g,  ork**g)  promenades  the  city  at  night  in  dis- 
guise." 

2.  "  If  an  Artist  love  his  Art  for  its  own  sake,  he  will  delight  in  excel- 
lence wherever  he  meets  it,  as  well  in  the  work  of  another  as  in  his 
own.  *****  Nor  is  this  genuine  love  compatible  with  a  craving 
for  distinction." 

In  Example  1,  k — ^,  k.  .ff,  or  k*^(/,  ia  used  for  king.  It  will  be 
observed  that,  when  periods  or  stars  are  thus  introduced  into  words, 
there  must  be  one  for  each  letter  omitted.  When  they  are  used,  as  in 
Ex.  2,  to  denote  the  omission  of  one  or  more  sentences,  any  number  may 
be  employed ;  but  too  many  mar  the  beauty  of  a  printed  p^ge. 

VII.  The  Brace  [^^ — >]  is  used  to  connect  several 
terms  or  expressions  with  one  to  which  all  have  a  common 
relation;  as, 

Bagatelle,  )  (  trifle  ; 

Cortege,     r  may  be  translated  •<  escort ; 

Ennui,        )  (  weariness. 

•  The  brace  is,  also,  sometimes  employed  to  connect  a  triplet,  or  three 
lines  of  poetry  rhyming  together,  when  introduced  into  a  poem,  most  of 
whose  lines  rhyme  in  pairs  or  couplets  ;  as. 


So  slowly,  by  degrees,  unwilling  fame 
Did  matchless  Eleonora's  fate  proclaim 


:f 


Till  public  as  the  loss  the  news  became. 

Vni.  The  Di-<ERESis  (  ••),  placed  over  either  (generally 

which  they  are  used  by  printers.  When  more  than  six  are  required,  what  is  it 
best  to  employ  ? 

Describe  the  diflTerent  marks  of  ellipsis.  For  what  are  they  used?  When 
periods  or  stars  are  used  to  denote  the  omission  of  letters,  how  many  must  there 
be  ?    When  they  denote  the  omission  of  a  sentence,  how  many  must  there  be  ? 

For  what  is  the  brace  used  ?    For  what  is  it  sometimes  employed  ia  poetry  ? 


152     CEDILLA. — DOUBLE   COMMA. — LEADEKS.— CARET. 

the  latter)  of  two  contiguous  vowels,  shows  that  they  do  not 
form  a  diphthong,  but  must  be  pronounced  separately ;  as, 
zoology^  aeronaut^  phaUon.  The  word  is  of  Greek  origin, 
and  signifies  a  division. 

IX.  The  Cedilla  is  a  mark  sometimes  placed  under  the 
letter  c  (9)  standing  before  a  and  o,  to  show  that,  contrary 
to  analogy,  it  has  the  sound  of  s.  This  mark  seldom  occurs 
except  in  certain  French  words  not  yet  fully  naturahzed  in 
English;  Q,^,fa^ade^  (jargon, 

X.  The  Double  Comma  ( „ )  is  used  to  denote  that  a 
word  is  to  be  supplied  from  a  line  above  in  the  space  imme- 
diately beneath  it.  Names  of  persons,  however,  are  gener- 
ally repeated ;  as, 

Ilarvcy  Johnson,  jr.,  Steubcuville,  Ohio. 
Jacob  J.  Johnson,  jr.,        „  „ 

Sometimes  inverted  commas  (  "  )  are  preferred  for  this  purpose. 

XI.  IjEADeks  ( )  are  dots  placed  at  short  intervals, 

to  carry  the  eye  from  words  at  the  commencement  of  a  line 
to  matter  at  its  end  with  which  they  are  connected.  It  is 
chieiiy  in  tables  of  contents  and  indexes  of  books  that  lead- 
ers arc  required.     Thus  : — 

Media  of  Communication page  13. 

Spoken  Language „     17. 

Written        „        „     20. 

XII.  The  Caret  (a),  used  only  in  manuscript,  shows 
w  here  interlined  words  are  to  l)e  introduced ;  as,  "  No  man 
is  exempted  from  ^l;"  ills  of  life."  The  name  of  this  mark  is 
a  Latin  word,  meaning  it  is  wanting. 


Where  is  the  diseresis  placed  ?  What  docs  it  phow  ?  From  what  language  Is 
the  word  derived,  and  what  does  it  si!:;nify  ? 

Under  wliat  letter  is  the  cedilla  i)lQced  ?  Before  what  vowel*;  ?  In  what  wonis  ? 

Wliero  and  for  wliat  is  the  (loii')lo  comma  employed?  What  other  mark  is 
preferred  by  some  for  tiiis  purpose  ? 

What  are  leaders*  ?    Where,  principally,  are  they  required  ? 

Where  is  the  caret  used  ?  What  does  it  show  ?  What  is  the  origin,  and  what 
the  meaning,  of  the  word  f 


Mercury. 

?     .     . 

Ceres. 

O 

.    New  Moon. 

Venus. 

$      .     . 

Pallas. 

B 

.    First  Quarter. 

Earth. 

u   .  . 

Jupiter. 

& 

.    Full  Moon. 

Mars. 

^     .    . 

Saturn. 

6 

.    Last  Quarter. 

Vesta. 

w  .   . 

Uranus. 

6 

.    Conjunction. 

Juno. 

#,  o  • 

Sun. 

8 

.    .    Opposition. 

TECHNICAL   TEKMS   l^EKTAINING   TO   BOOKS.  lOo 

XIII.  There  are,  also,  certain  characters  which  may  with 
propriety  be  here  emimerated. 

In  Prices  Current,  Book-keepings,  &c.,  we  meet  with  ^^  for  per,  «, 
each,  and  @,  at,  to.  In  almanacs,  treatises  on  Astronomy,  and  the  like, 
the  following  marks  constantly  occur  : — 

©     .    . 

S    .  . 
0    .   . 

TECHNICAL   TERMS   PERTAINING   TO    BOOKS. 

§  210.  Names  of  Books. — A  book  is  said  to  be  in  folio, 
or  as  abbreviated  fob,  when  the  sheets  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed are  folded  once,  each  making  two  leaves,  or  four 
pages.  The  size  of  a  folio  volume,  and  indeed  of  all  the 
others  enumerated  below,  depends  on  that  of  the  sheet ;  but, 
with  the  same  sheet,  a  book  of  folio  form  is  twice  as  large 
as  one  in  quarto,  and  four  times  the  size  of  an  octavo,  as  will 
be  presently  seen.  Formerly,  almost  all  books  were  printed 
in  folio ;  but  the  weight  of  such  volumes,  and  the  difficulty 
of  handling  them,  rendering  them  decidedly  objectionable, 
they  have  gradually  gone  out  of  fashion ;  and  now  no  book 
is  published  in  folio,  unless  a  large  page  is  required  for  ex- 
hibiting illustrations,  or  some  similar  purpose. 

A  quarto,  or  4to  volume,  is  one  whose  sheets  are  folded 
into  four  leaves  or  eight  pages.  An  octavo,  or  8vo,  consists 
of  sheets  divided  into  eight  leaves  or  sixteen  pages  each ; 
and  so  a  duodecimo,  or  12mo,  a  16mo,  18mo,  24mo,  32mo, 
48mo,  and  64mo,  denote  volumes  composed  respectively  of 
sheets  folded  into  twelve,  sixteen,  eighteen,  twenty-four, 
thirty-two,  forty-eight,  and  sixty-four  leaves. 


What  does  the  character  ^  denote  ?  What,  the  character  @  ?  Learn  tho 
astronomical  marke. 

§  210.  When  is  a  hook  said  to  bo  in  folio  ?  On  what  does  the  size  of  a  folio 
volume  depend?  Were  folio  volumes  formerly  more  or  less  in  vogue  than  at 
present  ?  Why  have  they  gone  out  of  fashion  ?  Wliat  is  meant  by  a  quarto  vol- 
ume ?  an  octavo  ?  a  12mo  ?  a  16mo  ?  a  24mo  ?  a  32nio  ?  a  48mo  ?  a  Hmo  2 


154  VARIETIES   OF   TYPE. 

§  211.  Kinds  of  Type. — There  are  different  sizes  of 
type,  of  which  the  following  are  most  used : — 

English^  abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Pica  J  abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Small  Pica^  abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Long  Primer^  abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Bourgeois^  abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Brevier  J  abcdefghij  klmnopqrstuvwxy  z. 

Minion^  abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Nonpareil,  abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

•  Agate,  abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Pearl,  abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyt. 

Diamond,  abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Putting  matter  in  t}'pc  is  technically  called  composing,  or  setting  tip. 
The  amount  of  matter  composed  is  estimated  in  ems,  or  spaces  of  the 
length  of  the  letter  m  ;  which  differ,  of  course,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  type  employed. 

By  Leads  are  meant  thin  plates  of  type-metal,  with  which  the  lines 
are  sometimes  separated.  When  these  plates  arc  employed,  the  matter 
is  said  to  be  leaded  ;  when  not,  solid. 

§  212.  Italics,  so  called  from  their  having  been  first  used 
by  Italian  printers,  are  letters  inchned  to  the  right,  like  those 
in  which  this  clause  is  printed ;  and  are  indicated  in  manu- 
script by  a  line  drawn  under  the  words  to  be  itaUcized. 
They  are  used  for  emphatic,  important,  and  contrasted  terms ; 
for  words  and  sentences  introduced  to  illustrate  rules ;  for 
names  of  newspapers,  vessels,  &c. ;  and  for  words  and  quota- 
tions from  foreign  languages. 

As  no  more  definite  rule  for  their  use  can  be  given,  the  composer 
must  exercise  his  judgment  in  deciding  when  they  may  with  propriety 
be  employed.  It  is  necessary  only  to  caution  liim  against  using  them 
too  freely.  Like  every  thing  else,  when  made  familiar,  they  lose  their 
effect ;  and,  besides  offending  the  eye,  tend  rather  to  perplex  the  reader 
than  to  aid  him  in  determining  what  is  really  emphatic. 

In  the  English  Bible,  italics  are  not  used  for  emphatic  words ;  bui 


§  211.  Mention  the  different  sizes  or  type,  in  order.    What  is  meant  bj  oom. 

posing,  or  setting  up,  type  ?  How  Is  the  amount  of  composed  matter  estimated  f 
What  x&vcuemf  What  are  leads  ?  What  is  meant  l)y  leaded  matter  ?  What,  by  solid  ? 
§212.  Describe  italics.  Why  are  they  so  called?  How  are  they  indicated  in 
manuscript?  For  what  arc  they  used?  What  is  the  effect  of  employing  them 
too  freely  ?    In  the  Bible,  what  do  italics  denote  ? 


GKAMAIATICAL   INACCURACIES.  155 

for  such  as  are  wanting  in  the  original  Hebrew  or  Greek,  and  were  in- 
troduced by  the  transhitors  to  complete  or  explain  the  meaning. 

§  213.  Running  Titles,  or  Head-lines,  consist  of  a  word 
or  words  placed  at  the  top  of  a  page  to  show  the  subject  of 
which  it  treats.  They  are  usually  printed  in  capitals  or 
small  capitals.  Such  headings,  when  placed  over  chapters 
and  paragraphs,  are  known  as  Captions  and  Sub-heads  ; 
and  as  Side-heads,  when  commencing  the  first  line  of  the 
paragraph  to  which  they  refer. 

§  214.  The  first  page  of  a  book  contains  the  title,  and  is 
therefore  styled  the  Title-page.  A  plate  facing  it  is  known 
as  the  Feontispiece.  A  small  ornamental  engraving  some- 
times found  on.  the  title-page,  and  often  at  the  commence- 
ment of  chapters,  is  called  a  Vignette.  This  term  means 
a  little  vine;  and  the  engraving  in  question  was  so  desig- 
nated from  the  fact  that  originally  a  vine,  or  a  wreath  of 
vine-leaves,  was  the  favorite  form  of  such  ornaments. 

In  old  books,  printers  were  in  the  habit  of  placing  under 
the  last  Hne  of  each  page  the  word  with  which  the  following 
page  was  to  commence,  either  as  a  guide  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  pages,  or  to  prevent  hesitation  on  the  part  of 
the  reader  while  turning  from  one  to  another.  These  are 
called  Catch-wokds  ;  they  are  now  no  longer  used. 


LESSON    XXXI. 

grammatical    INACC  UK  A  C  I  e  s . 

§  215.  Whatever  merits  of  style  or  thought  an  author 
may  possess,  or  whatever  applause  he  may  temporarily  re- 
ceive, he  can  not  expect  permanently  to  hold  an  honorable 

§  213.  Of  what  do  running  titles,  or  head-lines,  consist  ?  How  are  they  usually- 
printed  ?  when  placed  over  chapters  and  paragraphs,  what  are  such  headings 
called  ?    What  is  meant  by  side-heads  ? 

§  214.  What  is  meant  by  the  title-page  of  a  book  ?  What,  by  the  frontispiece  ? 
What  is  a  vignette  ?  What  is  the  meaning  of  this  term,  and  why  was  the  engrav- 
ing in  question  so  called  ? 

In  old  books,  what  was  placed  at  the  bottom  of  each  page  ?  What  were  these 
words  called  ? 


156  GKAMMATICAL    INACCUKACIE^. 

position  ill  literature,  unless  he  is  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
the  rules  of  grammar,  and  observes  them  in  composition. 
Without  a  preparatory  knowledge  of  this  art,  but  little  bene- 
fit can  be  derived  from  exercises  in  rhetoric.  Before  entering 
on  the  latter  study,  therefore,  it  is  expected  that  the  student 
will  not  only  have  made  himself  familiar  with  the  principles 
of  language  in  general,  but  will  also  have  devoted  particular 
attention  to  the  grammar  of  his  own  tongue :  it  is  presii})- 
posed  that  he  is  well  versed  in  its  etymology ;  that  he  can 
analyze  or  parse  its  sentences ;  and  that  he  has  intelligently 
applied  its  rules  in  the  correction  of  false  syntax.  Yet,  even 
after  such  preparation,  when  he  comes  to  the  construction  of 
original  sentences,  he  will  inevitably  find  that  in  guarding 
against  the  violation  of  one  principle  he  often  overlooks  an- 
other ;  and  that,  notwithstanding  his  utmost  care,  he  is  oc- 
casionally betrayed  into  inaccuracies,  and  even  solecisms.  If 
this  is  the  case  with  one  who  is  conversant  with  grammar 
(and  that  it  is,  the  i)ages  of  many  well-educated  ^vriters  con- 
clusively show),  how  liable  to  error  must  those  be  whose  ac- 
quaintance with  the  art  is  imperfect  or  superficial !  While  the 
latter  are  advised  to  pursue  a  complete  course  of  syntax 
with  the  aid  of  some  standard  text-book,  the  author  has 
deemed  it  proper  to  insert  here  for  their  benefit,  as  well  as 
that  of  all  whose  memorj?^  may  need  refreshing  on  these  es- 
sential points,  a  few  rules  covering  those  cases  in  which  he 
has  found  that  beginners  are  most  liable  to  err. 

§  216.  When  two  or- more  adjectives  belong  to  a  noim  with  which 
there  ia  occasion  to  use  the  article  also,  the  latter  is  placed  before  the 
first  adjective  alone  if  reference  is  made  to  a  single  ol)ject,  but  before  each 
if  several  objects  are  referred  to.  Thus  :  "  a  white  and  red  flag  "  signifies 
one  flag,  partly  red  and  partly  white  ;  "  a  white  and  a  red  flag"  moans 
two  flags,  one  red  and  the  other  white.  Do  not,  therefore,  omit  the  article 
before  the  last  adjective,  unless  it  is  clear  that  but  one  thing  is  intended. 

§  217.  The  possessive  case  and  the  word  that  governs  it  must  not  be 

S  215.  What  l8  essential  to  an  honorable  position  in  literature  f  What  is  ex- 
pected of  the  student  before  he  enters  on  the  etiuly  of  rlieforic  ? 

S  '21(5.  StJitc  the  principle  relating  to  the  use  of  the  article  before  a  noun  with 
wbicli  several  adjectivcf?  arc  counccted.    (Give  cxaniplcs  in  each  caec.) 


GEAMMATIOxVL   INACCUEAClES.  l57 

separated  by  an  intervening  clause ;  tlius,  *'  The  knave  thereupon  com- 
menced rifling  his  friend's,  as  he  facetiously  called  him,  pocket,"  must 
be  changed  to  "  The  knave  thereupon  commenced  rifling  the  pocket  of 
his  friend,  as  he  facetiously  called  him." 

§  218.  In  addressing  the  same  person,  do  not,  in  the  progress  of  a  sen- 
tence, use  pronouns  of  different  number ;  but  preserve  either  the  singular 
or  the  plural  throughout.  Thus,  it  is  wrong  to  say,  "  I  owe  thee  a  heavy 
debt  of  gi'atitude,  and  will  you  not  allow  me  to  repay  it  ?  "  We  should 
have  either  "  I  owe  you  a  heavy  debt,"  or  "  and  loilt  thou  not,"  &c. 

§  219.  Each  is  singular;  and  a  pronoun  or  verb  agreeing  with  it 
must  also  be  singular ;  as,  "  Let  them  depend  each  on  his  own  exer- 
tions," not  their  own. 

So,  several  nouns  preceded  respectively  by  each^  cveiy,  or  no,  whether 
connected  by  and  or  not,  require  a  singular  verb  and  pronoun ;  as, 
"  Every  lancer  and  every  rifleman  was  at  his  post." 

§  220.  Recollect  that,  under  all  circumstances,  a  verb  must  agree  with 
its  subject  in  person  and  number.  When  a  plural  substantive  is  intro- 
duced between  a  singular  subject  and  its  verb,  be  careful  not  to  put  the 
verb  in  the  plural.  "  Too  great  a  variety  of  studies  perplex  and  weaken 
the  judgment."  Variety^  the  subject,  being  in  the  singular,  perplex  and 
weaken  should  be  perplexes  and  weakens. 

§  221.  When  in  two  connected  clauses  the  leading  verb  is  in  the 
present  or  the  future  tense,  the  dependent  one  must  not  be  in  the  past. 
Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "You  will  not  come  unto  me  that  ye  might  have 
life,"  might  is  wrong,  because  it  is  connected  in  the  past  tense  with  the 
leading  verb  will  come,  which  is  future.  Might  have  should  be  changed  to 
may  have,  which  is  present. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  leading  verb  is  in  the  past  tense,  the  de- 
pendent verb  must  be  past  also.  Thus,  in  the  example  last  given,  if  will 
come  were  changed  to  tvoicldcome,  might  have  would  be  correct;  as,  *'  Ye 
wotdd  not  come  unto  me  that  ye  might  have  life." 

§  222.  Two  verbs  connected  by  a  conjunction  without  separate  nom- 

§  217.  State  the  principle  that  relates  to  the  position  of  the  possessive  caso 
and  the  word  that  governs  it. 

§  218.  What  is  to  be  observed  respecting  the  use  of  pronouns  in  the  progress 
of  a  sentence  ? 

§  219.  What  number  is  each?  What  number  must  a  pronoun  or  verb  agreeing 
with  it  be  ?    State  the  other  rule  laid  down  in  this  section. 

§  220.  Give  the  rule  for  the  agreement  of  the  verb.  What  common  error 
must  be  avoided  ? 

§  221.  What  is  the  rule  for  the  tenses  of  the  leading  and  dependent  verb  in 
connected  clauses  ? 


158  GRAMMATICAL   INACOURACIES. 

inatives,  must  be  in  the  same  mood.  This  rule  is  violated  in  the  follow, 
ing  sentence;  would  go  being  in  the  potential  mood,  and  suffered  in  the 
indicative :  "  The  Pharisees  would  neither  go  into  the  kingdom  of  Heaven 
themselves,  nor  sulFered  others  to  enter."  Either  a  new  nominative 
must  be  introduced  for  suffered  to  agree  with,  or  one  of  the  verbs  must 
be  altered  to  the  same  mood  as  the  other.  The  sentence  is  best  cor- 
rected by  changing  the  second  verb.  "  The  Pharisees  would  neither  go 
into  the  kingdom  of  Heaven  themselves,  nor  suffer  others  to  enter." 

§  223.  The  transitive  verbs  lay,  raise,  and  set,  must  not  be  confound- 
ed with  the  intransitives,  lie,  rise,  and  sit.     This  common  error  must  be 
carefully  avoided.     Compare  these  verbs,  as  conjugated  below. 
Transitive.  Intransitive. 


Lay,  laid,  laid. 

Raise,  raised,         raised. 

Set,  set,  set. 


Lie,  lay,  lain. 

Rise,  rose,  risen. 

Sit,  sat,  sat. 


■\Ve  laij  a  thing  down,  raise  it  up,  and  set  it  in  its  place.  We  He  abed 
when  we  are  sick,  but  rise  as  soon  as  we  arc  able  to  sit  up. 

§  224.  When  several  auxiliaries  belonging  to  different  tenses  are  used 
with  the  same  participle  or  verbal  form,  care  must  be  taken  to  have  them 
consistent.  "  I  can  make  as  much  money  as  he  has."  As  he  has  what  ? 
Evidently  has  make,  which  would  be  bad  grammar.  The  sentence  should 
read,  "  I  can  make  as  much  money  as  he  has  madc.^^ 

§  225.  Wliom,  and  not  who,  must  be  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb. 
"He  is  a  man  wliom  I  honor  next  to  the  king  himself; "  not  who,  for  the 
verb  honor  governs  the  relative  in  the  objective  case,  although  the  latter 
stands  before  it. 

§  226.  A  preposition  must  not  be  introduced  after  a  transitive  verb, 
to  govern  a  substantive  which  is  really  the  object  of  the  latter.  "  Covet 
earnestly  for  the  best  gifts  ; "  covet  being  a  transitive  verb,  for  should  be 
omitted. 

§  227.  Never  use  to,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  for  the  infinitive  itself; 
as  in  the  sentence,  "  I  have  not  seen  him,  and  I  am  not  likely  to."  It 
should  be,  "  I  am  not  likely  to  see  him." 

§  222.  What  is  Bald  of  the  mood  of  two  verbs  connected  by  a  conjunction  f 
How  may  sentences  in  which  this  nilc  is  violated  be  corrected  ? 

§  223.  "VVliat  verbs  must  not  bo  confounded?  Conjugate  the  transitive  verbs 
/(7y,  raise,  set.    Conjugate  the  intransitives  lie,  rise,  sit. 

%  224.  Give  the  rule  relating  to  auxiliaries. 

§  225.  What  is  the  objective  of  the  relative  who,  and  when  must  it  be  used  T 

§  226.  What  part  of  speech  must  not  be  introduced  to  govern  the  object  of  a 
transitive  verb  ? 

§  227.  What  must  not  bo  used  for  the  infinitive  ? 


GKAlVrMATIOAL  INACCURACIES. 


159 


§  228.  Appropriate  prepositions  must  follow  certain  words.  In  the 
following  sentence,  to  should  be  changed  to  from,  after  the  adjective 
different.     "  This  account  is  very  different  to  what  I  told  you." 

As  this  rule  is  constantly  violated,  a  list  of  a  few  common  adjectives 
and  verbs  is  here  presented,  together  with  the  prepositions  properly  used 
in  connection  with  them. 


Abhorrent  to. 

Accompanied  with  an  inanimate  ob- 
ject ;  hy  any  thing  that  has  life. 

Accuse  of. 

Acquaint  with. 

Adapted  to. 

Agree  with  a  person ;  to  a  proposi- 
tion from  another ;  upon  a  thing 
among  ourselves. 

Analogy  between  (when  two  objects 
follow  the  preposition);  to.,  with 
(when  one  of  the  substantives 
precedes  the  verb). 

Arrive  at,  in. 

Attended  with  an  inanimate  object ; 
by  any  thing  that  has  life. 

Averse  to,  from. 

Capacity /or. 

Charge  on  a  person ;  with  a  thing. 

Compare  with  (in  respect  of  quali- 
ty); to  (for  the  sake  of  illustra- 
tion). 


Congenial  to. 

Conversant  with  men ;  with  or  in 
things  :  about  and  among  are 
sometimes  used. 

Copy  after  a  person ;  from  a  thing. 

Correspond  with. 

Die  of  a  disease  ;  by  an  instrument 
or  violence. 

Disappointed  of  what  we  fail  to  ob- 
tain ;  in  what  does  not  answer 
our  expectations,  when  obtained. 

Entrance  into. 

Expert  m,  at. 

Followed  by. 

Prefer,  preferable,  to. 

Profit  by. 

Reconcile  (in  friendship)  to;  (to 
make  consistent)  ^oith. 

Reduce  (subdue)  under ;  (in  other 
cases)  to. 

Remonstrate  with-  a  person  ;  against 
a  thing. 


Between  is  applicable  to  two  objects  only  ;  among,  to  three  or  more. 
"  A  father  divided  a  portion  of  his  property  between  his  two  sons ;  the 
rest  he  distributed  among  the  poor." 

In  must  not  be  used  for  into,  after  verbs  denoting  entrance.  "  *  Come 
into  (not  in)  my  parlor,'  said  the  spider  to  the  fly." 

§  229.  It  is  inelegant  to  connect  a  transitive  verb  and  a  preposition, 
or  two  diflferent  prepositions,  with  the  same  object ;  as,  "  We  confide  in 
and  respect  the  good ;" — "  I  called  on,  and  had  a  conversation  with, 
him."  It  is  better,  in  such  cases,  either  to  supply  an  object  for  each  of 
the  governing  words,  or  to  omit  one  of  the  latter  if  it  can  be  done  with- 
out injury  to  the  sense :  thus,  "  We  confide  in  the  good,  and  respect 
them ;  "— "  I  called,  and  had  a  conversation  with  him." 


§228.  By  what  must  certain  words  be  followed?  To  how  many  objects  is 
between  applicable  ?  To  how  many,  among  f  By  what  must  verbs  denoting  en- 
trance be  followed  ? 

%  229.  What  must  not  be  connected  with  the  same  object  ? 


160  EXERCISE   IN    FALSE   SYNTAX. 

LESSON   XXXII. 

EXERCISE  IN  FALSE  SYNTAX. 

Correct  the  grammatical  errors  in  the  following  sen- 
tences : — 

Under  §  216.  Between  the  old  and  new  mansion  is  a  fine  grove  of 
trees. — A  gold  and  silver  medal  were  presented  to  the  inventor. — The 
educated  and  uneducated  man  are  very  different  personages. — A  white, 
red,  and  blue  flag,  was  displayed  from  the  castle. — A  white,  red,  and  blue 
flag,  were  displayed  from  the  castle. — This  veil  of  flesh  parts  the  visible 
and  invisible  world. — The  past  and  present  we  know,  but  who  can  guess 
the  future  ? — Sing  the  first  and  second  stanza. — A  red  and  white  rose 
is  a  great  rarity. — Here  are  a  red  and  white  rose,  growing  together  on  the 
same  bush. 

Under  §  217.  This  politician's  (for  statesman  we  can' hardly  call  him) 
dishonorable  course  has  alienated  most  of  his  friends. — Richard  the 
Lion-hearted's,  as  he  is  styled  in  history,  glorious  career,  made  him  the 
idol  of  his  subjects. — She  began  to  extol  the  farmer's,  as  she  called  him, 
excellent  understanding. — Critics  find  fault  with  the  poets'  of  the  Middle 
Ages  numerous  metrical  inaccuracies. 

Under  §  218.  Tliou  hast  protected  us,  and  shall  we  not  honor  you  ? — 
To  thee  I  owe  many  favors,  and  you  may  therefore  rely  on  my  executing 
thy  command. — 'Tis  thine  to  command,  mine  to  obey ;  let  me,  therefore, 
know  your  pleasure. 

Under  §  210.  The  king  of  Israel  and  the  king  of  Judali  sat  rach  on 
their  throne. — Let  each  esteem  other  better  than  themselves. — Every  pas- 
senger must  hold  their  own  ticket. — Each  of  the  sexes  should  keep  within 
its  proper  bounds,  and  content  themselves  with  the  advantages  of  their 
])articular  spheres. — Some  of  our  principal  schools  have  each  a  grammar  of 
their  own. — Every  bone,  every  muscle,  every  fibre,  of  man,  are  known  to 
his  Creator. — Every  loaf,  erery  twig,  every  drop  of  water,  teem  with  life. — 
Each  day,  each  hour,  each  moment,  bring  their  own  temptations. — Xo 
pain,  no  parting,  no  trial,  no  temptation,  are  to  be  encountered  then-. — 
Every  man  is  entitled  to  freedom  of  speech,  if  they  do  not  pervert  it  to 
the  injury  of  others. — Every  body  trembled  for  themselves  or  their 
friends. — Every  one  has  passed  through  scenes  which  arc  indelibly  im- 
pressed on  their  memory. 

Under  §  220.  Perfect  submission  to  the  rules  of  the  school  are  re- 
quired.— The  column  of  murders,  robberies,  fires,  and  accidents,  arc 
more  attractive  to  many  readers  than  any  other  department  of  a  news- 
paper.— (ilad  tidings  of  great  joy  is  brought  to  the  poor. — The  train  of 
our  ideas  are  often  interrupted. — Three  months'  notice  are  required  be- 
fore a  pui)il  is  allowed  to  leave. — Seven  men's  assertion  are  better  than 
one  man's  oath. — Six  months'  sojourn  among  these  mountains  have  re- 
stored me  to  perfect  health. 

Under  §  221.    If  he  dislikes  you,  why  did  you  associate  with  him? — 


EXEECISE   IN   I^ALSE   SYNTAX.  161 

If  he  was  a  good  man,  why  do  you  accuse  him  ? — I  would  be  obhged  to 
you  if  you  will  lend  me  that  book. — I  should  like  it  if  you  will  go. — We 
informed  him  of  the  difficulty,  that  he  may  be  prepared  for  it. — They 
will  study,  if  they  could  be  sure  of  taking  the  first  prize. — Let  me  feel 
that  I  can  succeed,  and  I  would  work  hard  to  accomplish  it. — Cultivate 
the  acquaintance  of  the  learned ;  for  they  might  be  of  sei'vice  to  you. 

Under  §  222.  He  writes  and  can  read. — Many  persons  can  command 
their  passions,  but  will  not  do  so. — He  would  neither  go  himself  nor 
sent  his  servant. — I  am  engaged  in  a  great  work,  and  would  not  leave  it 
for  one  of  less  importance. — They  might  have  been  happy,  and  now  are 
convinced  of  it. 

Under  §  223.  By  laying  abed  late  in  the  morning,  you  lose  a  tenth 
part  of  your  life. — Take  not  up  what  j'ou  have  not  lain  down. — The  price 
of  new-lain  eggs  has  raised. — lie  lay  himself  out  to  please  us. — The 
wicked  man  lays  in  wait  for  his  adversary. — The  ship  sat  sail  at  eight 
o'clock,  and  we  set  on  the  deck  till  midnight. — Ye  have  sat  at  naught  all 
my  counsel. — He  sits  a  horse  well.  (In  this  sentence  siis  is  correct,  the 
preposition  on  being  understood,  to  govern  horse.) 

Under  §  224.  Some  dedications  may  serve  for  any  book  that  has,  is, 
or  shall,  be  published. — He  neither  has,  nor  will,  gain  any  thing  by  this 
course. — He  may  have,  and  I  think  did,  esteem  her. — He  doth  leave  the 
ninety  and  nine,  goes  into  the  mountains,  and  seeks  that  which  is  gone 
astray. — I  did  go,  and  answered  my  accusers. — No  man  in  this  world 
has,  or  will  be,  perfectly  happy. — I  have  labored  as  much  as  a  person  in 
my  situation  can. 

Under  §  225.  Few  men  have  friends,  who,  under  all  circumstances, 
they  can  trust. — They  slew  Varus,  who  in  a  former  chapter  I  have  men- 
tioned.— Who  should  I  meet  the  other  day,  but  my  old  friend  ? — Be  care- 
ful who  you  trust. — Do  you  know  who  you  are  speaking  to  ? — There  are 
some  who,  though  we  do  not  like  them,  we  can  not  help  respecting. — 
Who  have  we  here  ? 

Under  §  226.  Let  me  consider  of  the  matter. — Great  benefit  may  be 
reaped  from  reading  of  history. — His  servants  ye  are  to  whom  ye  obey. — 
I  shall  commence  by  premising  Avith  a  few  observations. — We  can  not 
allow  of  any  interference. — The  peasants  do  not  seem  to  want  for  any 
thing. — The  prisoner  declined  answering  to  the  judge's  questions. — Of 
this  we  have  considered. — She  was  afraid  to  enter  in  the  room. 

Under  §  227.  The  good  man  tries  to  live  as  God  designed  him  to. — 
I  will  attend  the  meeting  myself,  and  induce  all  my  friends  to. — Explain 
this  point,  or  ask  your  friend  to. — The  book  is  so  uninteresting,  that  I 
have  not  read  it  through,  and  never  expect  to. 

Under  §  228.  Your  affairs  have  been  managed  in  a  different  manner 
than  what  I  advised. — Let  us  profit  from  the  misfortunes  of  others. — We 
are  often  disappointed  in  things  which  we  seemed  sure  to  obtain. — We 
are  often  disappointed  of  things  which  before  possession  promised  much 
enjoyment. — Socrates  was  accused  for  having  introduced  innovations  in 
religion. — Confide  on  the  virtuous,  and  rely  on  those  who  have  not  de- 
ceived you. — Such  a  course  is  attended  by  many  dangers. — Catiline  fled 
from  Rome,  attended  with  a  few  followers. — Bestow  favors  to  the  de- 
serving only. — Many  die  annually  from  the  plague. — How  can  this  fact 
be  reconciled  to  his  statements  ? — How  many  ridiculous  customs  have 


162  EXERCISE  IN   FALSE   SYNTAX. 

been  brought  in  use  during  the  last  hundred  years ! — Let  your  actions 
correspond  to  your  professions. — The  Anglo-Haxons  soon  quarrelled  be- 
tween themselves. — Virgil  has  often  been  compared  to  Homer. — Good 
humor  may  be  compared  with  the  sun,  which  sheds  hght  on  all  around. 

Under  §  229.  It  is  well  when  pupils  love,  and  entertain  respect  for, 
their  teachers. — Music  naturally  has  a  great  charm  for,  and  power  over, 
the  young. — No  one  ought  to  injure,  or  wound  the  feelings  of,  his  neigh- 
bor.— Poetry  has  a  natural  alliance  with,  and  often  strongly  excites,  our 
noblest  emotions. — Endeavor  to  alter,  or  rather  prevent  the  introduction 
of,  so  pernicious  a  fashion. — Good  men  are  not  always  found,  as  regards 
their  views  and  conduct,  consistent  with,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
often  opposed  to,  each  other. 


PAET    III. 

RHETORIC. 


LESSON    XXXIII. 

PROVINCE   AND   OBJECTS   OF  EHETORIC. 

§  230.  The  word  Rhetoric  is  derived  fi-om  the  Greek 
verb  pw,  to  speak,  and  in  its  primary  signification  had  refer- 
ence solely  to  the  art  of  oratory ;  in  this  sense,  moreover, 
we  find  it  generally  used  by  ancient  writers.  As,  however, 
most  of  the  rules  relating  to  the  composition  of  matter  in- 
tended for  delivery  are  equally  applicable  to  other  kinds  of 
writing,  in  the  course  of  time  the  meaning  of  the  term  was 
naturally  extended ;  so  that  even  as  early  as  in  the  age  of 
Aristotle  it  was  used  with  reference  to  productions  not  de- 
signed for  pubHc  recitation. 

At  the  present  day.  Rhetoric,  in  its  widest  acceptation, 
comprehends  all  prose  composition ;  and  it  is  with  this  sig- 
nification we  here  use  the  term :  in  its  narrowest  sense,  it  is 
limited  to  persuasive  speaking, 

§  230.  What  is  the  derivation  of  the  word  rhetoric?  What  did  it  originally 
signify  ?  To  what  has  it  elnce  been  extended  ?  In  its  widest  acceptation,  what 
Aoes  it  comprehend  ? 


164  PEOVtNCE    AND    OBJECTS   OF   RHETOElC. 

§  231.  The  ancients  thought  it  necessary  for  one  who 
would  master  this  subject  to  study  with  care  every  tiling  con- 
nected with  the  great  object  proposed,  the  conviction  of  the 
hearer  or  reader ;  and  with  this  viev/  some  rhetoricians  intro- 
duced into  their  sj'stem  Treatises  on  Law,  Morals,  Politics, 
&c.,  on  the  ground  that  no  one  could  WTite  or  speak  well  on 
these  subjects  without  jiroperly  understanding  them.  Quiii- 
tilian  even  insists  on  virtue  as  essential  to  the  perfect  orator, 
because  an  audience  is  necessarily  influenced  by  the  consid- 
eration that  candor,  truth,  and  uprightness,  distinguish  the 
person  addressing  thein.  This,  however,  is  assuming  too 
much.  As  the  art  of  architecture  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  collection  of  materials,  though  without  materials  it  is  im- 
possible to  build ;  so  a  knowledge  of  the  subject  of  which 
the  orator  or  essayist  is  to  treat,  constitutes  no  part  of  the 
art  of  Rhetoric,  though  essential  to  its  successful  employ- 
ment :  nor  does  virtue,  whatever  unction  it  may  impart  to 
the  words  of  a  writer  or  speaker,  fall  within  the  province  of 
this  art  any  more  than  wealth  or  rank,  which  is  also  likely 
to  produce  a  prejudice  in  his  favor. 

Some  modern  writers,  in  imitation  of  the  ancients,  and  with  a  greater 
show  of  justice,  have  introduced  Invention  as  a  division  of  Rhetoric;  in- 
sisting that  even  i>erfection  in  the  art  of  expressing,  arranging,  and 
beautifying,  is  valueless,  unless  the  thoughts  to  be  so  treated  are  judi- 
cious and  appropriate.  But  the  same  objection  here  applies.  Rhetoric, 
properly  speaking,  has  no  reference  to  the  creation  of  thoughts,  but 
merely  to  the  manner  of  expressing  Ihcm.  The  rules  and  principles  of 
Invention,  however,  though  independent  of  the  art  under  consideration, 
must  be  carefully  studied  in  connection  with  it,  by  all  who  would  give 
effect  to  their  compositions.  This  subject  will  hereafter  receive  atten- 
tion ;  we  shall  first  proceed  to  consider  Rhetoric  proper. 

§  232.  Rhetoric   may  be  regarded   as  either  a  science 

§  231.  What  (lid  the  ancients  regard  as  essential  to  the  mastery  of  tlds  art? 
Wlint  (lid  pomc  rhetoricians  introduce  into  their  systems  ?  What  does  Qnintilinn 
consider  csecnlinl  to  the  perfect  orator?  Is  this  just?  IlUistmte  the  case  hy  n 
comparison  with  the  art  of  architecture.  What  haTC  some  modem  writers  In- 
troduced a»  a  division  of  rlictoric?  What  ohjoctiou  is  tlicre  to  this?  What  is 
raid  of  the  rules  ait^  priuclplcs  of  invention  ? 


PEOVINCE    AND    OBJECTS    OF   RHETOEIC.  165 

or  an  art.  As  a  science,  it  investigates,  analyzes,  and  de- 
fines, the  principles  of  good  writing ;  as  an  art,  it  enables  us 
to  apply  these  principles,  or  in  otlier  words  teaches  us  the 
best  method  of  communicating  our  thoughts. 

All  art  is  founded  on  science.  The  relation  between  the  two  is  that 
of  offspring  and  parent.  Valuable  knowledge  always  leads  to  some 
practical  result ;  and  practical  skill  is  rarely  of  general  utility  or  extend- 
ed application,  unless  it  originates  in  knowledge.  On  the  most  sublime 
of  sciences,  for  instance,  theology  and  ethics,  is  founded  the  most  im- 
portant of  arts,  the  art  of  Uving.  So,  from  abstract  mathematical  science 
are  derived  the  arts  of  the  surveyor,  the  architect,  the  navigator,  and  the 
civil  engineer.  Nor  can  it  be  denied  that  their  practical  application  in 
these  arts  constitutes  the  chief  value  of  mathematical  studies  ;  and  that, 
were  they  not  so  applied,  they  would  be  as  much  neglected  as  they  are 
now  cultivated.  In  like  manner,  it  is  on  account  of  its  practical  utility 
that  Rhetoric  is  deemed  worthy  of  a  prominent  place  among  the  branches 
of  a  polite  education. 

§  233.  As  an  art.  Rhetoric  has  been  classed  by  some 
among  the  useful  arts,  the  object  of  which  is  to  aid  or  benefit 
mankind;  by  others,  among  the  elegant  arts,  which  aim 
simply  to  please.  It  seems,  however,  to  partake  of  the 
nature  of  both ;  and  may  therefore  with  propriety  be  de- 
nominated a  mixed  art. 

Both  the  elegant  and  the  useful  arts  are  founded  on  experience,  but 
differ  in  their  origin  and  grov/th.  The  latter,  being  the  offspring  of  ne- 
cessity, are  cultivated  even  in  the  ruder  stages  of  society ;  whereas  the 
former  have  their  origin  in  leisure,  and  are  disregarded  until  provision 
has  been  made  for  the  bodily  wants.  The  useful  arts,  however,  although 
first  to  originate  in  a  community,  are  slower  than  the  fine  arts  in  their 
progress  towards  perfection.  Thus,  modern  workmen  immeasurably 
excel  the  ancients  in  the  art  of  ship-building ;  and  how  far  this  supo- 

§  232.  How  may  rhetoric  be  regarded  ?  As  a  science,  what  is  its  province  ? 
What,  as  an  art  ?  What  is  the  relation  of  art  to  science  ?  On  what  sciences  ia 
the  art  of  living  founded  ?  From  abstract  mathematical  science  what  arts  are  de- 
rWed  ?  What  constitutes  the  chief  value  of  mathematics  ?  In  like  manner,  wliy 
is  rhetoric  deemed  an  important  branch  of  education  ? 

§  238.  What  is  the  object  of  the  useful  arts  ?  What,  of  the  elegant  arts  ?  To 
which  does  rhetoric  belong?  On  what  are  both  the  useful  and  the  elegant  arts 
founded  ?  In  what  do  they  difier  ?  At  what  period  of  a  nation's  history  do  they 
resp-ictively  originate? 

Show  the  dificrenco  in  their  development  and  progress  towards  perfection. 


166  PROVINCE    AND    OBJECTS   OF   EHETOEIC. 

riority  may  be  carried  by  means  of  future  discoveries  and  improvements, 
no  one  can  say.  In  literature,  however,  we  find  the  reverse  to  be  the 
case ;  while  naval  architecture  was  yet  comparatively  in  its  infancy,  the 
art  of  composition  reached  so  high  a  degree  of  perfection  among  the 
Greeks,  that  modem  times,  with  all  their  genius  and  learning,  have  pro- 
duced nothing  superior  to  the  master-pieces  of  antiquity.  In  the  rapid- 
ity of  its  development,  as  well  as  the  zeal  with  which  it  endeavors  to 
please  by  elaborate  embellishment.  Rhetoric  partakes  of  the  nature  of 
the  elegant  arts ;  it  resembles  the  useful  arts  in  its  utility,  we  may  al- 
most say  its  absolute  necessity  to  mankind,  as  facilitating  the  means  of 
communication. 

§  234.  From  the  study  of  Rhetoric,  two  great  advantages 
result :  first,  it  enables  us  to  discern  faults  and  beauties  in 
the  compositions  of  others ;  and,  secondly,  it  teaches  us  how 
to  express  and  embellish  our  own  thoughts,  so  as  to  produce 
the  most  forcible  impression. 

The  first  of  these  results,  were  there  no  other,  would  be  sufficient 
recompense  for  the  labor  involved  in  pursuing  a  rhetorical  course.  Nor, 
it  must  be  remembered,  is  this  labor  great.  The  questions  that  arise 
exercise  our  reason  without  fatiguing  it.  They  lead  to  inquiries,  acute 
but  not  painful ;  profound,  but  neither  dry  nor  difficult.  They  keep  the 
mind  active,  but  do  not  require  from  it  the  effort  necessary  for  the  inves- 
tigation of  purely  abstract  truth. 

By  a  trifling  expenditure  of  time  and  attention,  we  are  thus  enabled 
to  judge  of  literary  productions  for  ourselves,  to  weigh  in  the  balance 
of  taste  and  criticism,  and  form  our  opinions  independently  of  others. 
We  are  not  obliged  to  give  or  withhold  our  admiration  as  the  world  or 
the  critic  may  decide. 

Nor  is  this  independence  the  only  advantage  gained.  The  study  of 
belles-lettres  *  furnishes  a  never-failing  means  of  entertainment  for  our 


*  Belles-lettres,  the  general  term  used  in  the  French  language  to 
denote  the  art  of  which  we  are  treating  and  kindred  subjects,  is  exceed- 
ingly indefinite  in  its  signification,  being  by  some  writers  limited  to 
ilietoric  and  poetry,  and  by  others  made  to  embrace  natural  philosophy 

Illustrate  this  by  a  comparison  of  naval  architecture  with  literature.  In  what 
respect  does  rhetoric  resemble  the  elegaut  arts  ?    In  what,  the  useful  arts  ? 

§  2S4.  What  advantages  result  from  the  study  of  rhetoric  ?  What  Is  said  of  the 
flrat  of  these  ?  Is  much  labor  involved  in  pursuing  a  rhetorical  course  ?  What 
docs  a  trifling  expenditure  of  time  enable  us  to  do  ?  What  other  advantage  is 
gained  ?  How  is  the  pleasure  received  from  the  creations  of  art  greatly  increased  ? 

What  term  do  the  French  apply  to  rhetoric  and  kindred  branches  f    What 


PROVINCE    AND    OBJECTS   OF   RHETOEIC.  167 

leisure  hours.  Thorough  acquaintance  with  the  principles  of  an  art 
doubles  the  pleasure  we  receive  from  it ;  and  one  whose  taste  has  been 
cultivated  by  assiduous  study  of  the  philosophy  of  criticism  will  find,  on 
almost  every  page,  beauties  which  the  common  reader  overlooks,  is  in- 
capable of  appreciating,  and  consequently  entirely  loses.  A  love  for  the 
standard  master-pieces  of  literature  is  thus  awakened  ;  and  he  who  has 
once  acquired  such  a  relish  is  in  no  danger  of  being  a  burden  to  himself, 
or  of  yielding  to  the  seductions  of  false  and  destructive  pleasures. 

These  studies,  however,  do  more  than  entertain  and  please ;  they 
improve  the  understanding.  To  apply  the  principles  of  sound  criticism 
to  composition,  to  examine  what  is  beautiful  and  why  it  is  so,  to  dis- 
tinguish between  affected  and  real  ornaments,  can  hardly  fail  to  improve 
us  in  the  most  valuable  department  of  philosophy,  the  philosophy  of 
human  nature.  Such  examinations  teach  us  self-knowledge.  They 
necessarily  lead  us  to  reflect  on  the  operations  of  the  judgment,  the 
imagination,  and  the  heart;  and  famiUarize  us  with  the  most  refined 
feelings  that  ennoble  our  race.  Beauty,  harmony,  grandeur,  and  ele- 
gance ;  all  that  can  soothe  the  mind,  gratify  the  fancy,  or  move  the 
affections, — belong  to  the  province  of  these  studies.  Th^y  bring  to  light 
various  springs  of  action,  which,  without  their  aid,  might  have  passed 
unobserved ;  and  which,  though  delicate,  often  exercise  an  important 
influence  in  life. 

Lastly,  the  cultivation  of  taste  by  the  study  of  belles-lettres  has  in 
all  ages  been  regarded  as  an  important  aid  in  the  enforcement  of  moral- 
ity. Let  the  records  of  the  world  be  canvassed,  and  we  shall  find  that 
trespasses,  robberies,  and  murders,  are  not  the  work  of  refined  men ;  that 
though,  in  some  instances,  the  latter  have  proved  unequal  to  temptation, 
and  are  betrayed  into  gross  crimes,  yet  they  constitute  the  exception  and 
not  the  rule.    Nor  does  the  study  of  rhetoric  operate  as  a  preventive  to 


and  geometry ;  one  author  even  goes  so  far  as  to  introduce  in  a  treatise 
on  the  subject  a  discourse  on  the  seven  sacraments  of  the  Koman  Catho- 
lic Church.  At  the  Lyceum  of  Arts  in  Paris,  the  department  of  belles- 
lettres  comprehends  general  grammar,  languages,  rhetoric,  geography, 
liistory,  antiquities,  and  numismatics.  In  this  country,  the  term  is  gen- 
erally used  in  a  more  limited  sense,  to  denote  polite  literature,  including 
criticism,  taste,  the  pleasures  of  the  imagination,  &c. 

Fubjects  are  by  some  embraced  under  this  bead  ?  At  the  Lyceum  of  Arts  in  Paris, 
what  docB  the  department  of  belles-lettres  comprehend  ?  As  used  in  this  country, 
what  does  the  term  signify  ? 

Besides  entertainment,  what  may  we  gain  from  the  study  of  belles-lettres  ? 
Wliat  do  critical  examinations  teach  us  ? 

What  else  results  from  the  cultivation  of  taste  by  the  study  of  belles-lettres  ? 


1G8  PROVINCE   AND   OBJECTS    OF-  RHETORIC. 

the  more  heinous  offences  only;  it  elevates  the  tone  of  the  mind,  in- 
creases its  sensibility,  enlarges  the  sphere  of  its  sympathies,  and  thus 
enables  it  to  repress  its  selfishness  and  restrain  its  more  violent  emo- 
tions. To  a  man  of  acute  and  cultivated  taste,  every  wrong  action, 
wlicther  committed  by  himself  or  another,  is  a  source  of  pain;  and,  if 
he  is  the  transgressor,  his  lively  sensibility  brings  lum  back  to  duty, 
with  renewed  resolutions  for  the  future.  Even  the  highest  degree  of  cul- 
tivation may,  to  be  sure,  prove  insufficient  to  eradicate  the  evil  passions ; 
yet  its  tendency  will  certainly  be  to  mitigate  their  violence.  The  poet 
has  truly  said : — 

"  Thepe  polished  arts  have  humanized  mankind ; 
Softened  the  rude,  and  calmed  the  boisterous  mind." 

Noble  sentiments  and  high  examples,  constantly  brought  before  the 
mind,  can  not  fail  to  beget  in  it  a  love  of  glory,' and  an  admiration  of 
what  is  truly  great.  Though  these  impressions  may  not  always  be 
durable,  they  are  at  least  to  be  ranked  among  the  means  of  disposing 
the  heart  to  virtue. 

§  235.  As  an  aid  in  enabling  us  to  communicate  our 
thoughts  in  the  best  manner,  it  would  seem  as  if  the  value 
of  Rhetoric  would  be  obvious  to  all ;  yet  there  are  some  who 
venture  to  call  it  in  question.  Rules,  they  say,  hamper  the 
mind,  fetter  genius,  and  make  stiff  and  artificial  composers. 
They  prefer  lea\dng  the  writer,  untrammelled,  to  chance  or 
the  inspiration  of  the  moment ;  ridiculing  the  idea  of  his  in- 
quiring, while  in  the  act  of  giving  utterance  to  a  thought, 
what  is  required,  or  what  prohibited,  by  rule.  This  princi- 
ple, if  true  of  Rhetoric,  obviously  applies  to  logic,  grammar, 
and  oven  the  elementary  branches  of  education ;  and  it  fol- 
lows that,  through  fear  of  cramping  the  natural  powei-s,  we 
should  do  away  with  training  of  all  kinds.  The  absurdity 
of  this  conclusion  is  manifest. 

Such  reasoning  can  come  only  from  a  shallow  mind,  which  wouM 
thus  excuse  its  own  ignorance.  A  writer  can  not  hope  to  attain  perfec- 
tion in  his  art,  without  paying  due  attention  to  its  rules  and  principle-!, 
ileu  arc  not  born  great  composers,  any  more  than  they  are  born  skilful 

Wlmt  feeling  does  a  wrong  action  generally  awaken  in  a  man  of  cnltlvated  taste? 

What  do  noble  eentimentB  and  high  examples  produce  iu  the  mind  » 

§  2.T).  What  objection  is  made  by  some  to  the  study  of  rhetoric?    To  what  do 
thoy  prefer  leaving  the  writer?    Expose  the  fallacy  of  this  ol^jection.    What  id 


TASTE. — ITS   UNIVERSALITY   AND   CULTIVATION.      1G9 

carpenters  or  expert  shoemakers.  Proficiency  in  either  vocation  is  the 
result  of  study  and  practice.  It  is  not  necessary  that,  while  composing, 
the  writer  should  keep  rules  constantly  before  him,  and  thus  make  his 
style  mechanical  and  lifeless.  But  the  principles  of  his  art  should  be  so 
familiar  to  his  mind,  as,  without  consciousness  on  his  part,  to  control  its 
action.  He  thus  intuitively  avoids  what  is  wrong,  while  there  is  nothing 
to  prevent  his  sentences  from  being  as  easy,  natural,  and  unconstrained, 
ajs  those  of  the  loosest  and  most  ignorant  scribbler. 


LESSON   XXXIV. 

TASTE. — ITS   UNIVERSALITY   AND   CULTIVATION. 

§  236.  The  rules  of  Rhetoric  and  Criticism  are  not  arbi- 
trary, but  have  been  deduced  from  examinations  and  com- 
parisons of  those  great  productions  which  in  all  ages  have 
elicited  the  admiration  of  men.  Striking  passages  have  been 
analyzed ;  the  peculiarities  which  render  them  pathetic,  sub- 
lime, or  beautiful,  have  been  investigated ;  and  thus  rules 
have  been  formed,  by  which  the  critic  is  enabled  to  judge 
of  other  literary  performances,  and  the  writer  is  shown  how 
to  express  his  thoughts  in  such  a  way  as  to  reproduce  simi- 
lar impressions. 

Thus,  Aristotle,  who  was  the  first  to  lay  down  rules  for  unity  of 
action  in  dramatic  and  epic  poetry,  did  not  arrive  at  them  by  a  train  of 
inductive  reasoning,  but  by  close  observation  of  Sophocles  and  Homer. 
Perceiving  that  these  writers,  by  confining  themselves  in  each  of  their 
respective  works  to  one  action  complete  in  itself,  awakened  deeper  in- 
terest in  their  readers  than  those  who  combined  unconnected  facts,  he 
generalized  the  important  principle  that  in  the  drama  and  the  epic  poem 

the  advantage  of  studying  principles  and  rules  ?    Is  a  constrained  style  likely  to 
be  the  result  ? 

§  23G.  What  is  said  of  the  rules  of  rhetoric  and  criticism  ?  Whence  have  they 
been  deduced  ?  Describe  the  process.  How  did  Aristotle  arrive  at  his  rules  for 
unity  of  action  ? 

8 


170      TASTE. — ITS   UNIVEBSALITY   AND   CULTIVATION. 

unity  of  design  is  essential  to  success.  All  the  rules  of  the  rhetorician 
have  been  deduced  in  a  similar  manner,  and  are  thus  based  at  once  on 
experience  and  nature. 

§  237.  The  works  from  which  the  principles  of  Rhetoric 
are  deduced,  have,  as  already  remarked,  elicited  the  universal 
admiration  of  men.  This  implies  the  existence  in  the  human 
mind  of  a  faculty  capable  of  forming  opinions  respecting  them. 
Such  a  faculty  does,  indeed,  exist ;  nor  is  its  action  limited  to 
the  works  of  literature.  It  extends  alike  to  all  the  creations 
of  nature  and  art ;  and  is  known  by  the  name  of  Taste. 

§  238.  Taste  may  be  defined  as  that  faculty  of  the  mind 
which  enables  it  to  perceive,  with  the  aid  of  reason  to  judge 
of,  and  with  the  help  of  imagination  to  enjoy,  whatever  is 
beautiful  or  sublime  in  the  works  of  nature  and  art. 

The  word  taste  is  thus  used  metaphorically.  It  literally  signifies  the 
sense  residing  in  the  tongue  by  which  we  distinguish  different  flavors, 
and  is  hence  appropriately  applied  to  the  analogous  faculty  of  the  mind 
which  recognizes  alike  the  most  delicate  beauties  and  the  most  minute 
imperfections. 

So  contradictory  are  the  definitions  of  Taste  given  by  different  au- 
thors, so  obscure  is  their  language,  and  so  inconsistent  are  many  of  them 
with  themselves,  that  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  their  real  views  on  the 
subject.  Hume  calls  Taste  "  a  natural  sensibility  ".  Hutcheson  makes 
it  a  distinct  faculty,  perfect  in  itself:  he  maintains  that  it  is  entirely  in- 
dependent of  both  judgment  and  imagination,  not  only  receiving  impres- 
sions, but  also  passing  judgment  on  them,  and  producing  the  pleasures 
arising  therefrom ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  it  perceives  and  at  the  same 
time  judges  and  enjoys.  With  this  view  Blair  for  the  most  part  agrees  ; 
nor  are  Addison's  views,  as  set  forth  in  No.  409  of  the  Spectator,  materi- 
ally different.  An  opposite  theory  is  advocated  by  Burke  and  Akensido. 
The  former  unhesitatingly  attributes  the  perception  and  the  enjoyment 
arising  therefrom  to  entirely  different  faculties,  confining  Taste  to  the 
perception.  Akenside  distinctly  teaches  that  all  the  pleasures  connected 
with  the  sublime  and  beautiful  have  their  source  in  the  imagination. 

§  237.  What  does  the  general  admiration  of  thcmaeter-pieces  of  litoiaiure  imply 
in  the  human  mind  ?    To  what  does  this  faculty  extend  ?    What  is  it  called  ? 

§  238.  What  is  Taste  ?  What  does  this  term  literally  signify  ?  What  is  said  of 
tlic  definitions  of  Taste  given  by  different  authors  ?  Wliat  docs  Hume  call  Taste  ? 
State  Hutcheson'B  view.  What  writers  agree  with  him  in  the  main  *  Wluu  Is 
Burke's  theory  ?  .  Akcnslde'e  ?    Alison's  ?    Consip's  f 


TASTE. — ITS  UNIVEESALITY  AND   CULTIVATION.      171 

Alison,  also,  in  parts  of  his  Essay  ably  advocates  this  theory ;  yet,  with 
strange  inconsistency,  in  his  very  definition  makes  Taste  "  to  be  that 
faculty  of  the  human  mind  by  which  we  perceive  and  enjoy  whatever  is 
beautiful  or  sublime  in  the  works  of  nature  or  art ".  The  French  phi- 
losopher Cousin  says,  "  Three  faculties  enter  into  that  complex  faculty 
that  is  called  Taste, — imagination,  sentiment,  reason."  Sentiment,  ac- 
cording to  this  author,  receives  the  impression ;  reason  passes  judgment 
on  it ;  while  imagination  produces  the  sensation  of  pleasure  experienced 
by  the  mind. 

Amid  these  conflicting  theories,  the  author  has  adopted  that  which 
seems  to  him  least  liable  to  objection. 

§  239.  Taste  is  common,  in  some  degree,  to  all  men. 
Even  in  children  it  manifests  itself  at  an  early  age,  in  a  fond- 
ness for  regular  bodies,  an  admiration  of  statues  and  pictures, 
and  a  love  of  whatever  is  new  or  marvellous.  In  like  man- 
ner, the  most  ignorant  are  delighted  with  ballads  and  tales ; 
the  simplest  intellects  are  struck  with  the  beauties  of  earth 
and  sky ;  and  savages,  by  their  ornaments,  their  songs,  and 
the  rude  eloquence  of  their  harangues,  show  that  along  with 
reason  and  speech  they  have  received  the  faculty  of  appre- 
ciating beauty.  We  may  therefore  conclude  that  the  prin- 
ciples of  Taste  are  deeply  and  universally  implanted  in  the 
minds  of  men. 

§  240.  Though  Taste  is  common  to  all  men,  yet  they  by 
no  means  possess  it  in  the  same  degree.  There  are  some 
endowed  with  feelings  so  blunt,  and  tempers  so  cold  and 
phlegmatic, "that  they  hardly  receive  any  sensible  impressions 
even  from  the  most  striking  objects ;  others  are  capable  of 
appreciating  only  the  coarsest  kind  of  beauties,  and  for  these 
have  no  strong  or  decided  relish;  while  in  a  third  class 
pleasurable  emotions  are  excited  by  the  most  delicate  graces. 
There  seems,  indeed,  to  be  a  greater  difference  between  men 
as  respects  Taste,  than  in  point  of  common  sense,  reason,  or 
judgment.     In  this  nature  discovers  her  beneficence.     In 

§  239.  What  is  said  of  the  universality  of  Taste  ?  How  does  it  manifest  itself  in 
children  ?  How,  in  the  ignorant  ?  How,  in  savages  ?  What  is  the  natural  inference  ? 

§  340.  Is  Taste  possessed  by  all  men  in  the  same  degree  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
difference  between  individuals  in  this  respect  ?  How  does  nature  show  her  bcnefi- 


172      TASTE. — ITS   UNH^EKSALITY   AND  CULTIVATION. 

faculties  necessary  to  man's  well-being,  she  makes  little  dis- 
tinction between  her  children;  whereas  those  that  have 
reference  rather  to  the  ornamental  part  of  life  she  bestows 
sparingly  and  capriciously,  and  requires  a  higher  culture  for 
bringing  them  to  perfection. 

This  difference  in  the  degrees  of  Taste  possessed  by  men  is  owing  in 
a  great  measui'e,  as  we  have  seen,  to  nature ;  which  has  endowed  some 
with  more  sensitive  organs  than  others,  and  thus  made  them  capable  of 
greater  intellectual  enjoyment.  Yet  education  has  even  more  to  do  than 
nature  with  the  formation  of  Taste;  a  fact  which  becomes  obvious 
when  we  compare  barbarous  with  enlightened  nations  in  this  respect, 
or  contrast  such  individuals  of  the  latter  as  have  paid  attention  to  liberal 
studies  with  the  uncultivated  and  vulgar.  We  shall  at  once  perceive  an 
almost  incredible  difference  in  the  degrees  of  Taste  which  they  respec- 
tively possess, — a  difference  attributable  to  nothing  but  the  education 
of  the  faculty  in  the  one  case  and  its  neglect  in  the  other. 

Hence  it  follows  that  Taste  is  eminently  an  improvable  faculty ;  and 
in  the  case  of  this,  as  well  as  all  the  mental  and  bodily  powers,  exercise 
is  to  be  regarded  as  the  great  source  of  health  and  strength. 

Even  the  senses  are  rendered  peculiarly  acute  by  constant  use.  The 
blind,  for  instance,  who  can  make  themselves  acquainted  with  the  forms 
of  bodies  only  by  their  touch,  and  are  therefore  constantly  employing  it, 
acquire  exquisite  sensibihty;  so  that  they  can  even  read  fluently  by 
passing  their  fingers  over  raised  letters.  In  like  manner,  watchmakers, 
engravers,  proof-readers,  and  all  who  are  accustomed  to  use  the  eye  on 
minute  objects,  acquire  surprising  accuracy  of  sight  in  discerning  with 
ease  what  to  others  is  almost  invisible.  Every  one,  moreover,  has  seen 
the  result  of  cultivating  an  ear  for  music.  He  who  at  first  relishes  only 
the  simplest  compositions  gradually  appreciates  finer  meldtiies,  and  is  at 
last  enabled  to  enjoy  all  the  intricate  combinations  of  harmony.  So,  an 
eye  for  painting  can  not  be  acquired  at  once,  but  is  formed  by  close  study 
of  the  works  of  the  best  masters. 

It  is  thus  that  diligent  study,  and  close  attention  to  models  of  style, 
are  necessary  to  a  full  appreciation  of  the  great  works  of  literature.  One 
slightly  acquainted  with  the  productions  of  genius  sees  no  more  in  them 
than  in  commonplace  compositions  ;  their  merits  are  lost  upon  him ;  he 

cence  in  the  distrlbntion  of  Taste  and  common  sense  ?  What  besldee  nature  oper- 
atcfi  in  the  formation  of  Taste  ?  How  is  this  Phown  ?  How  may  Taste  be  improved  ? 
What  effect  has  exercisie  on  the  nenpos  ?    Give  examples.    Wlrnt  is  the  result 
of  cultivating;  an  ear  for  music  ?    How  is  an  eye  for  painting  acquired  ?    Wliat  is 
necesBary  to  an  appreciation  of  the  great  works  of  literature  ? 


ELEMENTS   And   CilARACTEEISTICS   OF   TASTE.         IIS 

is  equally  blind  to  their  excellences  and  defects.  His  Taste,  however, 
becomes  cultivated  in  proportion  as  his  acquaintance  with  works  of  this 
character  is  extended.  He  is  gradually  enabled,  not  only  to  form  judg- 
ments, but  to  give  satisfactory  reasons  for  them.  His  Taste  is  developed 
and  improved  by  exercise  ;  just  as  the  musician's  ear  and  the  painter's 
eye  are  cultivated  by  a  similar  process. 


LESSON    XXXV. 

ELEMENTS   AND   CHARACTERISTICS   OF   TASTE. 

§  241.  Taste,  we  have  seen,  is  founded  on  sensibility ; 
not,  however,  the  sensibility  of  mere  instinct,  but  that  of 
reason.  The  judgment  has  so  much  to  do  with  the  opera- 
tions and  decisions  of  this  faculty,  that  we  must  regard  it  as 
one  of  the  essential  elements  of  the  latter.  The  mind  may 
or  may  not  be  conscious  of  the  train  of  reasoning  by  which 
it  arrives  at  its  conclusions ;  but  in  most  cases  there  must 
be  such  reasoning  before  Taste  can  perform  its  functions. 
We  are  pleased  through  our  natural  sensibility  to  impres- 
sions of  the  beautiful,  aided,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  by 
the  imagination ;  but  an  exertion  of  reason  is  first  required, 
to  inform  us  whether  the  objects  successively  presented  to 
the  eye  are  beautiful  or  not. 

Thus,  in  reading  such  a  poem  as  the  -^neid,  much  of  our  gratifica- 
tion arises  from  the  story's  being  well  conducted,  and  having  a  proper 
connection  between  its  parts ;  from  the  fidelity  of  the  characters  to  na- 
ture, the  spirit  with  which  they  are  maintained,  and  the  appropriateness 
of  the  style  to  the  sentiments  expressed.  A  poem  thus  conducted  is 
enjoyed  by  the  mind,  through  the  joint  operation  of  the  Taste  and  the 
imagination ;  but  the  former  faculty,  without  the  guidance  of  reason, 
could  form  no  opinion  of  the  story,  would  be  at  a  loss  to  know  whether 
it  was  properly  conducted,  and  would  therefore  fail  to  receive  pleasure 

§  S41.  On  what  is  Taste  founded  ?  What  faculty,  neverthelcBs,  has  much  to  do 
with  its  decisions  ?  Before  Taste  can  perform  its  functions,  what  must  take 
place  ?   In  reading  such  a  poem  as  the  .^neid,  from  what  does  much  of  our  plca«- 


174        ELEMENTS  AND   CHABACTERISTICS    OF  TASTE. 

from  its  perusal.  In  like  manner,  whenever  in  works  of  Taste  an  imita> 
tion  of  nature  is  attempted,  whenever  it  becomes  necessary  to  consider 
the  adaptation  of  means  to  an  end,  or  the  connection  and  consistency  ol 
parts  uniting  to  form  a  whole,  the  judgment  must  always  play  an  impor- 
tant part. 

In  the  operations  of  Taste,  then,  two  different  elements 
seem  to  have  a  share :  first,  a  natural  susceptibility  or  sensi- 
tiveness to  pleasurable  emotions  arising  from  the  contempla- 
tion of  beauty  and  sublimity ;  and,  secondly,  a  sound  judg- 
ment, to  enable  this  faculty,  with  or  without  consciousness 
of  such  assistance,  to  appreciate  what  is  beautiful  and  sub- 
lime, and  admire  it  intelligently.  To  the  exercise  of  this 
faculty,  however,  in  its  perfection,  a  good  heart  is  no  less 
essential  than  a  sound  head.  Not  only  are  the  moral  beauties 
superior  to  all  others,  but  their  influence  is  exerted,  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  on  many  objects  of  Taste  with  which 
they  are  connected.  The  affections,  characters,  and  actions 
of  men,  certainly  afford  genius  the  noblest  subjects ;  and  of 
these  there  can  be  no  due  appreciation  by  minds  whose 
motives  and  principles  conflict  with  those  which  they  respec- 
tively contemplate  or  describe.  On  the  selfish  and  hard-heart- 
ed man  the  highest  beauties  of  poetry  are  necessarily  lost. 

§  242.  The  characteristics  of  Taste,  in  its  most  improved 
state,  are  reducible  to  two.  Delicacy  and  Correctness. 

Delicacy  of  Taste  implies  the  possession  of  those  finer  organs  and 
powers  which  enable  us  to  discover  beauties  that  lie  hid  from  the  vulgar 
eye.  It  may  be  tested  by  the  same  process  that  enables  us  to  estimate 
the  delicacy  of  an  external  sense.  As  the  acuteness  of  the  palate  is 
tried,  not  by  strong  flavors,  but  by  a  mixture  of  different  ones,  each  of 
which,  notwithstanding  it  is  blended  with  othert*,  is  detected  and  recog- 
nized ;  80  the  Delicacy  of  internal  Taste  appears  by  a  lively  sensibility 
to  the  finest,  minutest,  and  most  latent  objects,  even  when  most  inti- 

nre  arise?  Show  where  the  exercise  of  judgment  is  necoasary.  Inwbatcasca 
docs  this  faculty  always  play  an  important  part  ? 

What  two  elements  have  a  share  in  the  operations  of  Taste  ?  To  the  excrciso 
of  Taste  In  its  perfection,  what  is  essential  ?  Show  how  this  is  the  case.  What 
effect  have  the  highest  beauties  of  poetry  on  sclflnh  men  ? 

§  242.  What  are  the  cliaracterlstics  of  an  improved  Taste  ?  What  does  delicacy 
of  Taste  imply  ?  How  may  it  be  tested  ?  Show  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  a  deli- 


ELEMENTS  AND  CHAJRACTEEISTICS   OF   TASTE.        175 

mately  blended  and  compounded  together.  Many  have  strong  sensi- 
bility, yet  are  deficient  in  Delicacy.  They  may  be  deeply  impressed  by 
such  beauties  as  they  perceive,  but  can  perceive  only  what  is  coarse, 
bold,  or  palpable ;  chaster  and  simpler  graces  escape  their  notice.  The 
man  of  delicate  Taste,  on  the  other  hand,  has  not  only  strength,  but  also 
nicety,  of  feeling.  He  sees  distinctions  and  differences  which  are  lost  on 
others  ;  neither  the  most  concealed  beauties  nor  the  minutest  blemishes 
escape  him. 

Addison,  in  his  Spectator,  No.  409,  gives  a  striking  illustration  of 
Delicacy  of  Taste.  "  We  find,"  says  he,  "  there  are  as  many  degrees  of 
refinement  in  the  intellectual  faculty  as  in  the  sense  which  is  marked  out 
by  this  common  denomination.  I  knew  a  person  who  possessed  the  one 
in  so  great  a  perfection,  that,  after  having  tasted  ten  different  kinds  of 
tea,  he  would  distinguish,  without  seeing  the  color  of  it,  the  particular 
sort  which  was  offered  him  ;  and  not  only  so,  but  any  two  sorts  of  them 
that  were  mixed  together  in  an  equal  proportion ;  nay,  he  has  carried 
the  experiment  so  far  as,  upon  tasting  the  composition  of  three  different 
sorts,  to  name  the  parcels  from  whence  the  three  several  ingredients  were 
taken.  A  man  of  fine  taste  in  writing  will  discern,  after  the  same  man- 
ner, not  only  the  general  beauties  and  imperfections  of  an  author,  but 
discover  the  several  ways  of  thinking  and  expressing  himself  which  di- 
versify him  from  all  other  authors,  with  the  several  foreign  infusions  of 
thought  and  language,  and  the  particular  authors  from  whom  they  were 
borrowed." 

Correctness  of  Taste  implies  soundness  of  understanding. 
It  judges  of  every  tiling  by  the  standard  of  good  sense  ;  is 
never  imposed  on  by  counterfeit  ornaments  ;  duly  estimates 
the  several  beauties  it  meets  with  in  works  of  genius ;  refers 
them  to  their  proper  classes  ;  analyzes  the  principles  from 
which  their  power  of  pleasing  proceeds  ;  and  enjoys  them 
according  to  their  respective  merits. 

These  two  qualities.  Delicacy  and  Correctness,  though  quite  distinct, 
to  a  certain  extent  imply  each  other.  No  Taste  can  be  exquisitely  deli- 
cate without  being  correct,  or  thoroughly  correct  without  being  delicate. 
Still  one  or  the  other  characteristic  predominates.    Among  ancient  crit- 

cate  Taste.  What  striking  illustration  does  Addison  give  of  delicacy  of  Taste  ? 
What  does  correctness  of  Taste  imply?  By  what  standard  does  it  judge  of 
things  ?  Show  how  a  correct  Taste  deals  with  works  of  genius.  What  relation 
Bubsists  between  delicacy  and  correctness  ?  What  critics  among  the  ancients  aro 
respectively  distinguished  for  delicacy  and  correctness  of  Taste  ?  Who,  among 
modem  critics  ? 


170        ELEMENTS   AND   CHARACTERISTICS    OF    TASTE. 

ics,  Longinus  possessed  most  Delicacy;  Aristotle,  most  Correctness. 
Ot  moderns,  none  exceed  Addison  in  Delicacy;  and  few  in  Correctness 
equal  Johnson  and  Karnes. 

§  243.  We  have  thus  far  contemplated  Taste  in  its  sound 
or  healthy  state ;  we  find,  however,  from  our  own  experience, 
as  well  as  from  the  history  of  the  past,  that  it  is  liable  to 
change,  and  may  in  both  individuals  and  nations  become 
weakened  and  even  vitiated.  There  is,  indeed,  nothing  more 
fluctuating  or  capricious.  The  inconsistencies  of  this  faculty', 
and  the  wrong  conclusions  at  which  it  often  arrives,  have 
even  created  in  some  a  suspicion  that  it  is  merely  arbitrary  ; 
that  it  is  not  grounded  on  invariable  principles,  is  ascertainable 
by  no  standard,  and  is  dependent  exclusively  on  the  changing 
fancy  of  the  hour ;  and  that  therefore  all  labored  inquiries 
concerning  its  operations  are  useless. 

One  or  two  examples  of  the  opposite  Tastes  which  have  prevailed  in 
different  parts  of  the  world,  and  the  revolutions  that  have  taken  place 
from  time  to  time  in  the  same  country,  may  here  be  cited  with  propriety. 
In  eloquence  and  poetry,  nothing  has  ever  pleased  the  Asiatics  except 
the  tumid,  the  ornamental,  the  artificial,  and  the  gaudy  ;  whereas  the 
ancient  Greeks,  despising  Oriental  ostentation,  admired  only  what  was 
chaste  and  simple.  In  architecture,  the  models  of  Greece  for  centuries 
met  with  general  preference ;  subsequently,  however,  the  Gothic  style 
prevailed  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others ;  and  this  in  turn  was  afterwards 
laid  aside,  while  the  Grecian  was  again  received  into  popular  favor. 
Again,  in  literature,  how  completely  opposite  is  the  taste  of  the  present 
day  to  that  which  prevailed  during  the  reign  of  Charles  II. !  Nothing 
•was  then  in  vogue  but  an  affected  brilliancy  of  wit ;  the  simple  majesty 
of  Milton  was  overlooked ;  labored  and  unnatural  conclusions  were  mis- 
taken for  scintillations  of  genius,  sprightliness  for  tenderness,  and  bom- 
bast for  eloquence.  Examples  of  vitiated  Taste,  whether  we  apply  this 
term,  literally,  to  the  external  sense,  or,  figuratively,  to  the  internal 
faculty,  meet  us  on  all  sides.  The  Hottentot  smears  his  body  with  pu- 
trid oil ;'  the  Greenlander  delights  in  rancid  fat ;  the  Alpme  hunter  takes 


§  213.  ITow  bnvc  we  thus  far  contemplated  Tasto  ?  To  what  do  wc  And  it 
liable?  What  cliarncter  does  it  Homctlmes  ass^ume  in  both  IndiTidnnl!*  and  na- 
tions? What  suspicion  bavo  the  inconsistencies  of  this  faculty  produced  in 
Bome?  What  example  is  cited  of  opposite  Tastes  in  eloquence  and  poetry?  In 
architecture  ?  Compare  the  literary  tasto  of  Charles  Second's  era  with  that  of 
the  present  day.    Give  examples  of  vitiated  Taste. 


ELEMENTS   AND   CIlAKACTEEtSTiCS   OF    TASTE.        177 

pride  in  the  swollen  neck  peculiar  to  his  people ;  the  woman  of  fashion 
prefers  rouge  to  the  roses  which  nature  has  planted  in  her  cheeks ;  and 
some  intellects  admire  Jack  the  Giant-killer  more  than  the  sublimest 
strains  of  the  Epic  Muse. 

§  244.  In  view  of  sucli  facts  as  these,  it  is  natural  to  fall 
back  on  the  trite  proverb  de  gustihiis  non  disputandum^ 
"  there  is  no  disputing  about  tastes  "  ;  and  to  conclude  that, 
as  long  as  there  is  so  great  a  diversity,  all  standards  and 
tests  must  be  arbitrary,  and  consequently  worthless.  But 
let  us  see  to  what  this  doctrine  leads.  If  the  proverb  is  true 
of  Taste  in  its  literal  signification,  it  must  be  equally  true 
of  the  other  senses.  If  the  pleasures  of  the  palate  are  su- 
perior to  criticism,  those  of  sight,  smell,  sound,  and  touch, 
must  be  equally  privileged.  Kl  this  rate,  we  have  no  right 
to  condemn  one  who  prefers  the  rude  head  on  a  sign  to 
Raphael's  glorious  creations,  the  odor  of  a  decaying  carcass 
to  that  of  the  most  fragrant  flower,  or  hideous  discord  to 
exquisite  harmony.  This  principle,  applied  to  Taste  in  its 
figurative  acceptation,  is  equivalent  to  the  general  proposition 
that,  as  regards  the  perceptions  of  sense,  by  w^hich  some 
things  appear  agreeable  and  others  disagreeable,  there  is  no 
such  thing  as  good  or  had^  right  or  wrong ;  that  every 
man's  Taste  is  to  him  a  standard  without  appeal ;  and  that 
we  can  not,  therefore,  properly  censure  even  those  who  prefer 
the  empty  rhymester  to  Milton.  The  absurdity  of  such  a 
position,  when  applied  to  extremes,  is  manifest.  No  one 
will  venture  to  maintain  that  the  Taste  of  a  Hottentot  or 
an  Esquimaux  is  as  delicate  as  that  of  a  Longinus  or  an  Ad- 
dison ;  and,  as  long  as  this  is  the  case,  it  must  be  admitted 
that  there  is  some  foundation  for  the  preference  of  one  man's 
Taste  to  another's,  some  standard  by  which  all  may  be  judged. 


§  ^4,  What  conclusion  may  naturally  be  drawn  from  this  variety  in  Tastes  ? 
Where  does  this  doctrine  lead  us  ?  Applied  to  the  faculty  of  Taste,  to  what  is 
this  principle  equivalent  ?  Show  the  absurdity  of  such  a  position.  If  one  man's 
Taste  is  to  be  preferred  to  another's,  what  must  exist  ?  In  what  case  is  diversity 
of  Tastes  not  only  admissible  but  to  be  expected  ?  Show  iu  what  Tasteu  may 
differ  and  yet  be  correct. 


178  STANDABD  OF  TASTE. 

It  must  be  observed  that  the  diversity  of  men's  Tastes  does  not  ne- 
cessarily imply  incorrectness  in  any.  Where  the  objects  considered  are 
different,  such  diversity  is  not  only  admissible  but  to  be  expected.  One 
man  relishes  poetry  most ;  another  takes  pleasure  in  history  alone.  One 
prefers  comedy ;  another,  tragedy.  One  admires  the  simple ;  another, 
the  ornamental.  Gay  and  sprightly  compositions  please  the  young; 
those  of  a  graver  cast  afford  more  entertainment  to  the  old.  Some  na- 
tions delight  in  bold  delineations  of  character  and  strong  representations 
of  passion  ;  others  find  superior  charms  in  delicacy  of  thought  and  ele- 
gance of  description.  Though  all  differ,  yet  all  select  some  one  beauty 
which  suits  their  peculiar  tone  of  mind ;  and  therefore  no  one  has  a  right 
to  condemn  the  rest.  It  is  not  in  matters  of  Taste  as  in  questions  of 
mere  reason,  that  but  one  conclusion  is  true,  and  all  the  rest  are  erro- 
neous. Truth,  which  is  the  object  of  reason,  is  one ;  beauty,  which  is 
the  leading  object  of  Taste,  is  manifold. 


LESSON    XXXVI. 

STANDARD  OP  TASTE. 

§  245.  Tastes,  we  have  seen,  admit  of  variety ;  but  only 
when  exercised  on  different  things.  Wlien  on  the  same  ob- 
ject men  disagree,  when  one  condemns  as  ugly  what  an- 
ther admires  as  beautiful,  then  we  have  no  longer  diversity, 
but  direct  opposition ;  and  one  must  be  right  and  the  other 
wrong,  unless  we  allow  the  absurd  position  that  all  Tastes 
are  equally  good. 

Suppose  a  certain  critic  prefers  Virgil  to  Homer ;  I,  on  the  contrary, 
give  the  preference  to  the  latter.  The  other  party  is  struck  with  the 
elegance  and  tenderness  which  characterize  the  Koraan  bard ;  I,  with 
the  simplicity,  sublimity,  and  fire,  of  the  Greek.  As  long  as  neither  of 
us  denies  that  both  these  poets  have  great  beauties,  our  difference  merely 
exemplifies  that  diversity  which,  as  we  have  seen,  is  natural  and  allow- 
able. But,  if  the  other  party  asserts  that  Homer  lias  no  beauties  what- 
ever, that  he  is  dull  and  spiritless,  that  his  Iliad  is  in  no  respect  superior 

I  SMB.  In  what  case  may  Tastes  differ  without  being  directly  opposite  ?    Illus' 
trato  this  point  by  a  comparison  of  Virgil  with  Homer.    In  case  of  an  opposition 


STANDARD  OF  TASTE.  179 

to  any  old  legend  of  knight-errantry, — then  I  have  a  right  to  charge  my 
antagonist  with  having  either  no  Taste  at  all,  or  one  in  a  high  degree 
corrupted ;  and  I  appeal  to  whatever  I  regard  as  the  standard  of  Taste, 
to  show  him  his  error. 

It  remains  to  inquire  what  this  standard  is,  to  which,  in  such  oppo- 
sition of  Tastes,  we  must  have  recourse.  The  term  properly  denotes 
something  established  as  a  rule  or  model,  of  such  undoubted  authority 
as  to  be  the  test  of  other  things  of  the  same  kind.  Thus,  when  we  say 
a  standard  weight  or  measure,  we  mean  one  appointed  by  law  to  regulate 
all  other  weights  and  measures. 

§  246.  Whenever  an  imitation  of  any  natural  object  is 
aimed  at,  as  for  instance  wlien  a  description  of  a  landscape 
or  a  portraiture  of  human  character  is  attempted,  fidelity  to 
nature  is  the  proper  criterion  of  the  truly  beautiful,  and  we 
may  lay  down  the  proposition  that  Nature  is  our  standard. 
In  such  cases,  reason  can  readily  compare  the  copy  with  the 
original ;  and  approve  or  condemn,  as  it  finds  the  peculiari- 
ties of  the  object  imitated  more  or  less  truthfully  represented. 

§  247.  In  many  cases,  however,  this  principle  is  inap- 
plicable ;  and  for  these  we  are  obhged  to  seek  some  other 
standard.  Were  any  person  possessed  of  all  the  mental 
powers  in  full  perfection,  of  senses  always  exquisite  and  true, 
and  particularly  of  sound  and  unerring  judgment,  his  opinions 
in  matters  of  Taste  would  beyond  doubt  constitute  an  unex- 
ceptionable standard  for  all  others.  But  as  long  as  human 
nature  is  liable  to  imperfection  and  error,  there  can  be  no 
such  living  criterion ;  no  one  individual  who  will  be  acknowl- 
edged by  his  fellow-men  to  possess  a  judgment  superior  to 
that  of  all  the  rest.  Where,  then,  can  we  find  the  required 
standard  ?    Manifestly,  in  the  concurrent  tastes  of  the  major- 

of  Tastes,  to  what  does  it  hecome  necessary  to  appeal?  What  does  the  term 
standard  denote  ?    What  do  we  mean  by  a  standard  weight  or  measure  ? 

§  246.  When  an  imitation  of  any  natural  object  is  aimed  at,  what  is  the  crite- 
rion of  the  beautiful  ?  What  faculty  is  called  on  to  approve  .or  condemn  ?  On 
what  is  its  decision  based  ? 

§  247.  In  what  cases  is  this  principle  inapplicable  ?  Why  can  not  the  Taste 
of  a  person  of  sound  judgment  be  taken  as  a  standard  ?  What  is  the  only  safe 
standard  that  can  be  adopted  ?  Show  how  we  appeal  to  this  standard  in  cases 
6f  literal  taste. 


180  STANDAIJD   OF   TASTE. 

ity  of  mmiklnd.  What  most  men  agree  in  admiring  must 
be  considered  beautiful ;  and  his  Taste  alone  can  be  esteemed 
true  who  coincides  with  the  general  sentiment  of  his  sj^ecies. 
If  any  one  should  maintain  that  sugar  is  bitter  and  tobacco  sweet, 
no  reasoning  could  avail  to  prove  it,  because  it  contradicts  the  general 
voice  of  mankind.  The  taste  of  such  a  person  would  inevitably  be  re- 
garded as  diseased.  In  like  manner,  with  regard  to  the  objects  of  inter- 
nal Taste,  the  common  opinion  of  mankind  carries  the  same  authority, 
and  constitutes  the  only  test  by  which  the  impressions  of  individuals  can 
be  tried. 

§  248.  When  we  speak  of  the  concurrent  Tastes  of  men 
as  the  universal  standard,  it  must  be  understood  that  we 
mean  men  placed  in  situations  favorable  to  the  proper  de- 
velopment of  this  faculty.  Such  loose  notions  as  may  be 
entertained  during  ages  of  ignorance  and  darkness,  or  among 
rude  and  uncivilized  nations,  carry  with  them  no  authority. 
In  such  states  of  society,  Taste  is  either  totally  suppressed 
or  appears  in  its  worst  form.  By  the  common  sentiments 
of  men,  therefore,  we  mean  the  concuiTent  opinions  of  re- 
fined men  in  civilized  nations,  by  whom  the  arts  are  culti- 
vated, works  of  genius  are  freely  discussed,  and  Taste  is 
improved  by  science  and  philosophy. 

Even  among  such  nations,  accidental  causes  occasionally  pervert  the 
Taste ;  superstition,  bigotry,  or  despotism,  may  bias  its  decisions ;  or 
habits  of  gayety  and  licentiousness  of  morals  may  bring  false  ornaments 
and  dissolute  writings  into  vogue.  Admiration  of  a  great  genius  may 
protect  his  faults  from  criticism,  and  even  render  them  fashionable. 
Sometimes  envy  obscures  for  a  season  productions  of  great  merit;  whilo 
personal  influence  or  party-spirit  may,  on  the  contrary,  exalt  to  a  high 
though  short-lived  reputation  what  is  totally  undeserving.  Such  incon- 
sistencies may  lead  us  to  doubt  the  correctness  of  our  standard  ;  but  it 
will  be  found  that  these  vagaries  in  the  course  of  time  invariably  correct 
themselves;  that  the  genuine  Taste  of  mankind  in  general  ultimately 
triumphs  over  the  fantastic  notions  which  may  have  attained  temporary 
currency  with  superficial  judges.     The  latter  soon  pass  away ;  whereas 

§  2'18.  Wliat  do  wc  mean  by  the  concnrrcnt  Taetcs  of  men,  which  wc  make  tho 
universal  etandarcl?  Even  amoiij?  cultivated  nations,  what  may  pervert  the 
Taetc  ?  Show  how  its  decisions  arc  sometime!*  influenced.  What  feelina:  is  likely 
to  be  produced  by  these  inconsistencies  ?  Ultimately,  however,  what  will  wc  flud  ? 


STANDARD   OF   TASTE.  l81 

the  principles  of  true  philosophic  Taste  are  unchangeable,  being  th« 
game  now  that  they  were  five  thousand  years  ago. 

The  universality  of  Taste  and  the  consistency  of  its  decisions,  except 
when  temporarily  perverted  by  external  causes,  prove  that  it  is  far  from 
being  arbitrary,  is  independent  of  individual  fancies,  and  employs  a  prac- 
tical criterion  for  determining  their  truth  or  falsehood.  In  every  com- 
position, what  captivates  the  imagination,  convinces  the  reason,  or 
^touches  the  heart,  pleases  all  ages  •  and  all  nations.  Hence  the  unani- 
mous testimony  which  successive  generations  have  borne  to  the  merit 
of  some  few  works  of  genius.  Hence  the  authority  which  such  works 
have  acquired  as  standards  of  composition ;  since  from  them  we  learn 
what  beauties  give  the  highest  pleasure,  and  elicit  the  general  admira- 
tion of  mankind. 

§  249.  Tlie  terms  Taste  and  Genius  being  frequently 
confounded,  though  signifying  quite  different  things,  it  is  of 
importance  clearly  to  define  the  distinction  subsisting  be- 
tween them.  Taste  consists  in  the  power  of  judging; 
Genius,  in  that  of  creating.  Genius  includes  Taste ;  whereas 
the  latter  not  only  may,  but  generally  does,  exist  without 
the  former.  Many  are  capable  of  appreciating  poetry,  elo- 
quence, and  the  productions  of  art,  who  have  themselves  no 
abilities  for  composing  or  executing.  Delicate  and  correct 
Taste  forms  a  good  critic ;  but  Genius  is  further  necessary 
to  form  a  poet,  an  orator,  or  an  artist.  Genius,  therefore,  is 
a  liigher  power  than  Taste.  It  implies  a  creative  or  inventive 
faculty,  which  not  only  perceives  beauties  already  existing, 
but  calls  new  ones  into  being,  and  so  exhibits  them  as 
strongly  to  impress  the  minds  of  others. 

The  term  genius,  as  commonly  used,  extends  further 
than  to  the  objects  of  Taste.  Thus  we  speak  of  a  genius 
for  mathematics,  for  war,  for  politics,  and  even  for  mechan- 
ical employments.  In  this  acceptation,  it  signifies  a  natural 
talent  or  aptitude  for  excelling  in  any  particular  vocation. 

How  is  it  proved  that  the  principles  of  Taste  are  not  arbitrary  ?  How  have 
the  great  works  of  genius  been  regarded  in  all  ages  ? 

§  249.  What  terms  are  often  confounded  ?  Show  the  difference  between  Taste 
and  Genius,  Which  forms  the  critic,  and  which  the  poet  ?  Which  is  the  higher 
power  ?  What  is  the  common  acceptation  of  the  term  genius  f  As  possessed  by 
individual  minds,  which  extends  to  the  wider  range  of  objects,  Genius  or  Taste  ? 


182  STAl^DARD   OF   TASTE. 

Genius,  the  creative  faculty,  as  possessed  by  individual 
minds,  does  not  extend  to  so  wide  a  range  of  objects  as  Taste. 
It  is  not  uncommon  to  meet  persons  possessed  of  good  Taste 
in  several  of  the  elegant  arts,  in  painting,  sculpture,  music, 
and  poetry;  but  to  find  one  who  is  an  excellent  performer  in 
all  these  is  much  more  rare,  or  rather  not  to  be  expected  at 
all.  A  universal  genius  is  not  likely  to  excel  in  any  thing ; 
only  when  the  creative  powers  of  the  mind  are  directed  ex- 
clusively to  one  object,  is  there  a  prospect  of  attaining 
eminence.  With  Taste  the  reverse  is  the  case ;  exercising  it 
on  one  class  of  objects  is  likely  to  improve  it  as  regards  all. 

§  250.  Genius,  as  remarked  above,  implies  the  existence 
of  Taste ;  and  the  more  the  latter  is  cultivated  and  improved, 
the  nobler  will  be  the  achievements  of  the  former.  Genius, 
however,  may  exist  in  a  higher  degree  than  Taste;  that 
is,  a  person's  Genius  may  be  bold  and  strong,  while  liis 
Taste  is  remarkable  for  neither  deUcacy  nor  correctness. 
This  is  often  the  case  in  the  infancy  of  a  literature  or  an  art: 
for  Genius,  which  is  the  gift  of  nature,  attains  its  growth  at 
once ;  while  Taste,  being  in  a  great  degree  the  result  of  as- 
siduous study  and  cultivation,  requires  long  and  careful  train- 
ing to  attain  perfection.  Shakspeare  is  a  case  in  point.  Full 
of  vigor  and  fire,  and  remarkable  for  the  originality  of  his 
thoughts,  he  still  lacks  much  of  that  delicacy,  both  of  con- 
ception and  expression,  which  has  been  attained  by  later 
writers  of  far  inferior  Genius.  Indeed,  those  who  dazzle 
the  mmds  of  their  readers  with  great  and  brilliant  thoughts 
are  too  apt  to  disregard  the  lesser  graces  of  composition. 


What  is  said  of  a  universal  genius?    What  is  the  result  of  exercising  Taste  on 
any  particular  clans  of  objects  ? 

§  250.  What  is  implied  in  Genius?    May  it  exist  without  a  high  degree  of 
Taste  ?    When  is  tliis  often  the  case  ?    What  author  is  a  ca«c  in  point  ? 


PLEASURES   OF  THE  IMAGINATION.  183 

LESSON   XXXVII. 

PLEASURES  OF  THE  IMAGINATION.      • 

§  251.  The  pleasures  of  Taste,  since  they  arise  from 
impressions  made  on  the  imagination,  are  generally  known 
as  the  Pleasures  of  the  Imagination. 

§  252.  The  Imagination  is  that  faculty  of  the  mind  by 
which  it  conceives  ideas  of  things  communicated  to  it  by 
the  -organs  of  sense,  and,  selecting  parts  of  different  concep- 
tions, combines  them  into  new  wholes  of  its  own  creation. 

Imagination,  like  every  other  faculty  of  mind,  is  of  course  confined 
to  man.  Opening  to  him,  as  it  does,  an  enlarged  sphere  of  manifold  and 
multiform  pleasures,  it  affords  a  striking  proof  of  divine  benevolence. 
The  necessary  purposes  of  hfe  might  have  been  answered,  though  our 
senses  had  served  only  to  distinguish  external  objects,  without  conveying 
to  us  any  of  those  delightful  emotions  of  which  they  are  now  the  source. 
The  Creator,  however,  has  seen  fit  to  vouchsafe  to  man  these  pure  and 
innocent  enjoyments  for  the  purpose  of  elevating  his  aspirations,  enno- 
bling his  emotions,  banishing  unworthy  thoughts  from  his  breast,  freeing 
him  from  the  control  of  passion  and  sense,  and  leading  him  to  look  be- 
yond the  earth,  and 

"  Before  the  transient  and  minute 
To  prize  the  vast,  the  stable,  the  sublime  ". 

'  The  mind  that  has  once  feasted  on  the  pleasures  which  imagination 
affords,  will  never  be  satisfied  to  leave  them  for  meaner  enjoyments ;  any 
more  than  one  who  from  some  height  views  a  majestic  river  rolling  its 
waves  through  spa(!ious  plains  and  past  splendid  cities,  will  withdraw 
his  gaze  from  the  inviting  prospect,  to  contemplate  the  stagnant  pool  at 
his  feet. 

§  253.  The  process  by  which  the  emotions  alluded  to  af- 
fect the  imagmation  next  requires  attention.     Whenever  an 

§  ^1.  From  what  do  the  pleasures  of  Taste  arise  ?  What  are  they  generally 
called  ? 

§  252.  What  is  meant  by  the  imagination  ?  To  whom  is  it  confined  ?  Show 
how  its  bestowal  is  a  proof  of  divine  beneficence.  How  do  the  pleasures  of  the 
imagination  compare  with  other  enjoyments  ? 

§  253.  Describe  the  process  by  which  the  sensations  in  question  affect  the  im- 
agination.   What,  besides  the  sensation,  is  essential  to  the  production  of  a  ideas- 


184  TLEASUllES   OF   THE   mAGlKATION. 

object  calculated  to  produce  them  is  presented  to  the  mind, 
unless  its  attention  is  previously  engrossed,  a  train  of  thought 
is  immediately  awakened,  analogous  in  character  to  the 
object  exciting  it.  It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  the 
simple  perception  of  the  object  is  insufficient  of  itself  to  ex- 
cite the  emotion.  No  pleasurable  impression  will  be  pro- 
duced, unless  the  mind  operates  in  connection  with  the 
sensation ;  unless  the  imagination  busies  itself  with  the  pur- 
suit of  such  trains  of  thought  as  are  awakened. 

We  find  that  the  same  thing  is  true  of  the  creations  of  art.  A  fine 
landscape,  a  beautiful  poem,  a  thrilling  strain  of  harmony,  excite  feeble 
emotions  in  our  minds,  as  long  as  our  attention  is  confined  to  the  quali- 
ties they  present  to  our  senses.  We  fully  appreciate  them  only  when 
our  imaginations  are  kindled  by  their  power,  when  we  lose  ourselves 
amid  the  images  summoned  before  us,  and  wake  at  last  from  the  play  of 
fancy  as  from  the  charm  of  a  romantic  dream. 

§  254.  That  pleasurable  emotions  are  not  produced  by 
mere  impressions  on  the  external  senses,  but  remain  unfelt 
unless  these  impressions  are  transferred  to  the  imagination, 
is  susceptible  of  conclusive  proof.  If,  for  instance,  the  mind 
is  in  such  a  state  as  to  prevent  the  play  of  imagination,  the 
sensation  of  pleasure  is  entirely  lost,  although  of  course  tlu^ 
effect  on  the  outward  sense  is  the  same.  A  man  in  pain  or 
affliction  will  contemplate  without  the  slightest  admiration 
scenes  and  objects,  which,  were  his  imagination  at  libert}-, 
would  afford  him  the  liveliest  pleasure.  The  sublimity  and 
beauty  of  external  nature  are  almost  constantly  before  us, 
and  not  a  day  passes  without  presenting  us  objects  calcu- 
lated to  charm  and  elevate  the  mind ;  yet  it  is  in  general 
with  a  heedless  eye  that  we  regard  them,  and  only  at  \x\V' 
ticular  moments  that  we  arc  sensible  of  their  power.  There 
are  few  that  have  not  contemplated  with  delight  the  beauties 
of  a  glowing  sunset ;  yet  every  one  knows  that,  at  times,  all 

urahle  emotion  in  the  mind  ?    What  is  said  of  the  emotions  produced  by  the  crc 

at  ions  of  art? 

§  2&i.  Prove  that  ploapiirablc  emotions  are  not  prodnced  by  more  impressions 
on  the  external  ecuecs.    To  what  la  the  diffcrcuco  in  the  Imprcasions  produced 


PLEASUKES   OF   THE   IMAGINATION.  l85 

the  gorgeous  magnificence  with  which  nature  paints  the 
heavens  at  the  close  of  day  falls  powerless  on  the  eye. 

This  difference  of  effect  is  clearly  not  attributable  to  the  objects 
themselves,  nor  to  the  external  senses  on  which  the  impression  is  prima- 
rily produced :  it  arises  from  a  difference  in  the  state  of  our  imagina- 
tions ;  from  our  disposition  at  one  time  to  follow  out  the  train  of  thought 
awakened,  and  our  incapacity  to  do  this,  at  another,  in  consequence  of 
the  preoccupation  of  our  minds  by  some  engrossing  idea.  The  pleasures 
of  Taste  are  enjoyed  in  their  perfection  only  when  the  imagination  is 
free,  and  the  attention  is  so  little  occupied  as  to  leave  us  open  to  all  the 
impressions  created  by  the  objects  before  us.  It  is,  therefore,  always  in 
leisure  hours  that  we  turn  to  music  and  poetry  for  anmscment.  The 
seasons  of  care,  of  grief,  of  business,  have  other  occupations ;  and  de- 
stroy, for  the  time  at  least,  our  sensibility  to  the  beautiful  or  the  sub- 
lime, in  proportion  as  the  state  of  mind  produced  by  them  is  unfavor- 
able to  the  exercise  of  the  imagination. 

Another  proof  that  imagination  is  the  source  of  the  pleas- 
ures of  Taste  ma}^  be  derived  from  what  is  observed  in  the 
l)rocess  of  criticising.  When,  in  considering  a  poem  or  paint- 
ing, we  attend  minutely  to  the  language  and  structure  of 
the  one,  or  the  coloring  and  design  of  the  other,  we  cease  to 
feel  the  delight  which  they  otherwise  produce.  The  reason 
of  this  is  that  by  so  doing  we  restrain  our  imagination,  and, 
instead  of  yielding  to  its  suggestions,  resist  them  by  fixing 
our  attention  on  minute  and  unconnected  parts.  On  the 
contrary,  if  the  imagination  is  ardent  and  is  left  to  its  free 
exercise,  the  mind  receives  pleasure  from  the  performance  as 
a  whole,  and  takes  no  note  of  the  minor  details  of  criticism. 

It  is  this  chiefly  that  makes  it  difficult  for  young  persons  with  lively 
imaginations  to  form  correct  judgments  of  the  productions  of  literature 
and  art,  and  which  so  often  induces  them  to  approve  of  mediocre  per- 
formances. It  is  not  that  they  are  incapable  of  learning  in  what  merit 
of  composition  consists ;  for  the  principles  which  direct  us  in  the  forma- 

l)y  the  same  object  at  different  times  attributable  ?  When  are  the  pleasures  of 
Ta^te  enjoyed  in  their  perfection  ?  When  do  we  turn  to  music  or  poetry  for 
amusement  ? 

What  do  facts  observable  in  the  process  of  criticising  prove  with  reg^ard  to 
ihe  pleasures  of  Taste  ?  State  the  arguments  thus  derived.  What  kind  of  critics 
are  persons  with  ardent  imaginations  likely  to  become?  What  renders  it  diffi- 
cult for  the  young  to  form  correct  judgments  of  literary  pei-formances?    Wliat 


186  PLEASURES  OF  THE  BIAGINATION. 

tion  of  critical  opinions  are  neither  numerous  nor  abstruse.  It  is  not 
that  sensibility  increases  with  age ;  for  this  all  experience  contradicts. 
But  it  is  because  at  this  period  of  life  the  imagination  is  fresh,  and  is 
excited  by  the  slightest  causes  ;  because  the  young  decide  on  the  merits 
of  a  composition  according  to  the  impression  it  makes  on  this  faculty ; 
because  their  estimate  of  its  value  is  formed,  not  by  comparing  it  with 
other  works  or  with  any  abstract  or  ideal  standard,  but  from  the  facility 
with  which  it  leads  them  into  those  enchanting  regions  of  fancy  where 
youth  loves  to  wander.  It  is  their  own  imagination  that  in  reality  pos- 
sesses the  charms  which  they  attribute  to  the  work  that  excites  it ;  and 
the  simplest  tale  is  as  capable  of  exciting  this  faculty  in  the  young,  and 
is  therefore  advanced  to  as  high  a  rank  in  their  estimation  as  the  most 
meritorious  performances  would  be  at  a  later  period. 

All  this  flow  of  imagination,  however,  in  which  youth  and  men  of 
sensibility  are  apt  to  indulge,  and  which  so  often  yields  them  pleasure 
while  it  involves  them  in  incorrect  judgments,  the  labor  of  criticism  de- 
stroys. Thus  employed,  the  mind,  instead  of  being  free  to  follow  the 
trains  of  imagery  successively  awakened,  is  either  fettered  to  the  con- 
sideration of  minute  and  isolated  parts,  or  pauses  to  weigh  the  various 
ideas  received.  Thus  distracted,  it  loses  the  emotion,  whether  of  beauty 
or  sublimity ;  and,  since  the  impression  on  the  outward  sense  is  evident- 
ly the  same  as  before,  it  must  be  the  restraint  of  imagination  alone  that 
makes  the  difference,  and  consequently  this  faculty  is  the  sole  source 
whence  the  pleasures  of  Taste  flow.  Accordingly,  the  mathematician 
who  investigates  the  demonstrations  of  the  Newtonian  philosophy,  the 
painter  who  studies  the  designs  of  Raphael,  the  poet  who  reasons  on  the 
measure  of  Milton, — all  in  such  occupations  lose  the  delight  which  these 
several  productions  give ;  and,  when  they  wish  to  recover  the  emotion 
of  pleasure,  must  withdraw  their  attention  from  minute  considerations, 
and  leave  their  fancy  to  revel  amid  the  great  and  pleasing  conceptions 
with  which  it  is  inspired. 

§  255.  The  pleasures  received  from  objects  of  Taste  de- 
}3ending,  as  we  have  seen,  on  the  action  of  the  imagination, 
it  follows  that  whatever  facilitates  the  lively  exercise  of  this 
faculty  heightens  the  pleasurable  emotions  experienced.  Tliis 
is  obviously  the  effect  of  those  interesting  associations  with 

effect  has  the  labor  of  critlclem  on  the  flow  of  imagination  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
mathematician,  the  painter,  and  the  poet,  wlieu  etudyiug  the  great  masters  of 
their  respective  arts? 

§2.55.  On  what  do  tlic  pleasures  received  from  objects  of  Taste   depetld? 
What,  tlicrefore,  heijjhtens  the  pleasurable  emotions  experienced  T    Of  what  i* 


PLEASURES   OF   THE   IMAGINATION.  187 

particular  objects  wWch  exist  in  every  mind.  These  asso- 
ciations are  comprised  in  three  classes : — 

I.  Personal.  No  man  is  indifferent  to  a  view  of  the  house  where  he  was 
born,  the  school  where  he  was  educated,  or  the  scenes  amid  which  his 
infancy  was  spent.  So  many  images  of  past  affections  and  past  happi- 
ness do  they  recall,  that,  commonplace  as  they  may  seem  to  others,  to 
him  they  are  a  source  of  indescribable  rapture.  There  are  melodies,  also, 
that  were  learned  in  infancy,  or  were  sung  perhaps  by  beloved  voices  now 
silent,  which  awake  strong  feeling  within  us  whenever  they  are  heard, 
and  are  through  life  preferred  to  all  others. 

II.  National.  Next  to  personal  t^sociations,  those  connected  with 
our  country  are  most  calculated  to  heighten  our  emotions  of  pleasure. 
What  American  can  visit  the  localities  consecrated  by  the  blood  of  his 
struggling  ancestors,  can  behold  Bunker  Hill,  Bennington,  Valley  Forge, 
Cowpens,  or  Yorktown,  and  not  feel  his  heart  touched  with  a  far  higher 
and  stronger  enthusiasm  than  would  be  kindled  by  the  mere  beauty  of 
the  respective  scenes  ?  To  others,  they  may  be  objects  of  indifference ; 
to  us,  they  are  hallowed  by  their  connection  with  our  country's  history. 
In  like  manner,  the  fine  lines  which  Virgil,  in  his  Georgics,  has  dedicated 
to  the  praises  of  his  native  land,  beautiful  as  they  are  to  us,  were  un- 
doubtedly read  with  far  greater  pleasure  by  the  ancient  Roman. 

The  influence  of  such  associations  in  increasing  the  beauty  or  sub- 
limity of  musical  compositions  must  have  been  generally  observed. 
Swiss  soldiers  in  foreign  lands  have  been  so  overwhelmed  with  melan- 
choly on  hearing  their  celebrated  national  air,  that  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  forbid  its  performance  in  the  armies  in  which  they  serve. 
This  effect  is  not  attributable  to  the  composition  itself,  but  to  the  recol- 
lections with  which  it  is  accompanied ;  to  the  images  it  awakens  of  peace 
and  domestic  pleasures,  from  which  they  have  been  torn,  and  to  which 
they  may  never  return.  So  the  tune  called  Bellisle  March  is  said  to  have 
owed  its  popularity  in  England  to  the  supposition  that  it  was  the  air 
played  when  the  British  army  marched  into  Bellisle,  and  to  its  conse- 
quent association  with  images  of  conquest  and  military  glory. 

III.  Historical.    Powerful,  though  in  a  less  degree  than  the  associa' 

this  obviously  the  effect?  In  how  many  classes  are  associations  comprised? 
What  is  the  first  class  ?  Describe  personal  associations.  Show  how  they  impart 
additional  intensity  to  the  pleasure  received  from  certain  melodies.  What  asso- 
siations,  next  to  personal  ones,  are  most  calculated  to  heighten  our  pleasurable 
emotions  ?  What  scenes  are  likely  to  kindle  enthusiasm  in  an  American's  heart? 
Why?  In  whom  is  it  likely  that  the  lines  dedicated  by  Virgil  to  his  country 
awakened  the  liveliest  pleasure?  What  compositions  have  their  effect  greatly 
increased  by  such  associations  ?  What  illustration  is  cited,  touching  the  Swiss 
eoldiers  ?  To  what  is  the  effect  of  this  national  air  attributable  ?  In  Hko  manner, 


188    SOURCES  OF  THE  PLEASURES  OF  THE  IMAGINATION. 

tions  connected  with  our  own  land,  are  those  founded  on  general  history 
or  the  lives  of  distinguished  persons.  The  valley  of  Vaucluse  is  cele- 
brated for  its  beauty ;  yet  how  little  would  it  have  been  esteemed,  had  it 
not  been  the  residence  of  Petrarch  !  In  like  manner,  there  are  many 
landscapes,  no  doubt,  more  beautiful  than  Runnymcde ;  yet  those  who 
remember  that  this  place  witnessed  the  granting  of  the  great  charter 
which  has  guaranteed  the  rights  and  liberties  of  millions,  will  find  few 
scenes  affect  their  imaginations  so  strongly. 


LESSON-  XXXVIII. 

SOURCES  OP  THE   PLEASURES  OF  THE  IMAGINATIOK. 
THE    NOVEL. — THE    WONDERFUL. — THE   PICTURESQUE. 

§  256.  Of  the  five  senses  that  have  been  given  to  man, 
three, — taste,  smell,  and  touch, — are  incapable  by  themselves 
of  awakening  the  imagination  to  pleasure.  Co()perating 
with  the  other  two,  tliey  may  contribute  to  the  effect  pro- 
duced on  this  faculty;  or,  by  the  associations  connected 
with  their  sensations,  they  may  occasionally  produce  pleas- 
ing trains  of  thought :  but,  independently  exercised,  they 
can  not  be  regarded  as  sources  of  the  pleasures  of  Taste. 
Hence  the  intensity  of  the  affliction  with  which  the  blind 
and  deaf  man  is  visited.  Cut  off  from  the  manifold  enjoy- 
ments insured  by  sight  and  hearing,  and  by  these  alone,  he 
finds  but  little  solace  in  the  possession  of  the  three  inferior 
senses. 

Taste  (in  its  literal  signification)  has  to  do  with  the  body ;  it  flatters 
and  serves  the  grossest  of  all  masters,  the  stomach.     No  sense  has  less 

to  what  does  the  air  called  Bclllslo  March  owe  its  popularity  ?  Wliat  is  the  Uiird 
class  of  associations  ?  How  do  they  rank  as  regards  effect?  What  illustrations 
are  given,  to  prove  their  power  ? 

§  25<).  Which  of  the  five  senses  arc  incapable  of  affcctin?  the  imagination  ? 
When  do  they  contribute  to  the  effect  produced  on  this  faculty  ?  How  are  they 
Bometimcs  instrumental  in  producing  pleasing  trains  of  thought  ?  Independently 
exercised,  are  they  sources  of  the  pleasures  of  Taete?  What  follows  with  respect 
to  the  blind  and  doaf  man  ? 

To  what  does  the  Bcnsc  of  taste  appeal  ?  What  kind  of  pleasnros  is  It  Incapa- 


SOURCES  OF  THE  PLEASURES  OF  THE  IMAGINATION.    189 

connection  with  the  mind,  or  is  so  utterly  incapable  of  yielding  it 
pleasure. 

Smell  may  sometimes  seem  to  yield  perceptions  of  the  beautiful ;  but 
it  is  because  the  odor  is  exhaled  from  an  object  that  we  already  know  to 
be  beautiful,  and  that  is  so  independently  of  its  fragrance.  Thus,  tho 
rose  charms  us  with  its  symmetrical  proportions  and  the  richness  and 
variety  of  its  shades ;  its  odor  is  agreeable,  not  beautiful,  and  suggests 
the  idea  of  beauty  only  because  we  know  it  to  proceed  from  a  beautiful 
object. 

Touch  may  in  a  measure  judge  of  smoothness,  regularity,  and  sym- 
metry ;  but  not  with  sufficient  promptness  and  accuracy  to  make  it  a 
source  of  pleasure  to  the  imagination,  unless  sight  comes  to  its  aid. 

Agreeable  trains  of  thought  may,  indeed,  occasionally  be  awakened 
by  the  taste,  smell,  and  perhaps  touch,  of  particular  objects  with  which 
striking  recollections  of  the  past  are  connected ;  yet  we  can  not  on  that 
account  say  that  the  sensations  produced  through  these  media  are  a 
source  of  mental  pleasure. 

§  257.  The  only  senses  capable  of  kindling  the  imagina- 
tion and  exciting  its  pleasures  are  sight  and  hearing. 
The  impressions  of  the  former  are  the  more  striking,  and  the 
enjoyment  they  yield  is  both  more  lasting  and  more  intense. 
The  blind,  therefore,  apart  from  the  greater  helplessness  to 
which  they  are  reduced,  lose  incomparably  more  of  the  pleas- 
ures of  the  imagination,  whether  awakened  by  nature  or  art, 
than  the  deaf. 

These  senses  seem  to  be  particularly  in  the  service  of  the  soul.  The 
sensations  they  produce  are  pure,  not  gross  ;  intellectual,  not  corporeal. 
They  contribute  to  the  refining  rather  than  the  sustaining  of  life.  Thoy 
procure  us  pleasures  which  are  not  selfish  and  sensual,  but  noble  and 
elevating. 

§  258.  To  these  two  senses,  then^  through  the  operation 
of  which  natural  objects  excite  a  flow  of  imagination  and 

ble  of  producing  ?  Of  what  may  smell  sometimes  seem  to  yield  perceptions  ? 
Explain  how  this  is,  and  illustrate  it  in  the  cai?e  of  the  rose.  Of  what  qualities 
may  touch,  in  a  measure,  judge  ?  Why  is  it  not,  then,  a  source  of  pleasure  to  the 
imagination  ?  To  what  are  the  agreeable  trains  of  thought  sometimes  awakened 
by  these  senses  attributable  ? 

§  257.  What  senses  alone  are  capable  of  kindling  the  imagination  ?  Which 
produces  the  more  striking  impressions  ?  How,  then,  does  the  affliction  of  the 
blind  compare  with  that  of  the  deaf?  What  is  said  of  the  sensations  and  pleas- 
ures produced  by  sight  and  hearing  ? 


190   SOURCES  OF  THE  PLEASURES  OF  THE  IMAGINATION. 

consequent  pleasure,  art  must  be  addressed,  in  order  to  make 
an  impression  on  the  mind.  The  eye  being,  as  we  have 
seen,  the  medium  of  the  most  vivid  and  abundant  sensa- 
tions, to  it  most  of  the  fine  arts, — painting,  sculpture, 
architecture,  and  landscape-gardening, — are  exclusively  ad- 
dressed. Music,  jioetry,  and  rhetoric  (which  we  have  seen 
is  a  mixed  art),  address  themselves  to  the  ear. 

§'  259.  We  may  divide  those  objects  of  sight  and  hear- 
ing which  constitute  the  source  of  pleasure  to  the  imagina- 
tion, into  two  great  classes,  the  productions  of  nature  and 
those  of  art.  Strictly  speaking,  our  subject  leads  us  to  treat 
only  of  the  latter,  or  rather  of  that  class  of  the  latter  which 
pertains  exclusively  to  the  art  of  composition.  Yet,  as  the 
relation  subsisting  between  the  two  is  intimate  and  they 
often  afford  striking  illustrations  of  each  other,  we  shall 
briefly  extend  our  notice  to  both. 

§  260.  The  different  characteristics  wliich  an  object  must 
possess  to  excite  the  imagination  are  known  as  the  novel, 
the  wonderful,  the  picturesque,  the  sublime,  and  the  beau- 
tiful. Of  these  the  last  two.  are  by  far  the  most  fruitful 
sources  of  pleasure. 

These  five  qualities  belong  alike  to  natural  and  artificial  objects. 
Two  others  must  here  be  mentioned,  more  limited  in  extent,  because  ap- 
plicable only  to  the  creations  of  art. 

I.  Fidelity  of  imitation.  Art  in  many  cases  aims  at  nothing  more 
than  a  reproduction  of  nature.  In  these  cases,  the  closer  the  resemblance 
the  copy  bears  to  the  original,  the  greater  pleasure  does  it  afford.  Nor 
is  this  less  true,  though  the  object  copied  be  destitute  of  beauty,  or  even 
repulsive.  In  a  picture  we  dlin  endure  the  filthy  lazzaroni  and  disgusting 
dwarf,  from  whom  in  life  we  would  turn  away  with  uncontrollable  aver- 
sion.    The  mind  is  pleased  with  the  fidelity  of  the  representation,  be- 


§  258.  To  what  must  art  bo  addressed  ?  Wliich  arts  are  addressed  to  the  eye  f 
Which,  to  the  ear? 

§  259.  Into  what  two  great  classes  are  the  objects  of  sight  and  hearing  divided  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  relation  subsisting  between  them  ? 

§  2(50.  Enumerate  the  characteristics  which  nn  object  mnst  possess,  to  excito 
the  imagination.  Which  of  these  are  the  most  frnitful  sources  of  pleasure  ?  To 
wliat  objects  do  these  qualities  belong  t  What  two  others  are  more  limited  in 
cKteut  t    In  what  cases  is  firlclity  of  imitation  a  sonrce  of  pleasure  ?    Illustrate 


THE   NOVEL.  191 

cause  in  the  triumphs  of  art  the  whole  species  may  be  said  to  have  a 
common  concern  and  pride. 

II.  Wit,  humor,  and  ridicule,  in  literary  compositions,  are  the  source 
of  various  pleasures.  These  are  of  such  importance  as  to  require  future 
consideration  at  some  length. 

§  261.  The  Novel  is  an  important  source  of  the  pleas- 
ures of  Taste,  producing,  as  it  does,  a  lively  and  instanta- 
neous effect  on  the  imagination.  An  object  which  has  no 
merit  to  recommend  it,  except  its  being  uncommon  or  new, 
by  means  of  this  quality  gives  a  quick  and  pleasing  impulse 
to  the  mind.  A  degree  of  novelty,  indeed,  though  not  es- 
sential to  the  production  of  impressions  by  the  beautiful  or 
the  sublime,  considerably  heightens  them ;  for  objects  long 
familiar,  however  attractive,  are  apt  to  be  passed  over  with 
indifference. 

Tlie  emotion  produced  by  novelty  is  of  a  livelier  and 
more  pungent  nature  than  that  excited  by  beauty ;  but  is 
proportionately  shorter  in  its  continuance.  If  there  is  no 
other  charm  to  rivet  our  attention,  the  shining  gloss  thus 
communicated  soon  wears  off. 

The  desire  to  see  and  hear  what  is  new  is  universal,  and  is  known  as 
curiosity.  Xo  emotion  of  the  mind  is  stronger  or  more  general.  Con- 
versation is  never  more  interesting  than  when  it  turns  on  strange  ob- 
jects and  extraordinary  events.  Men  tear  themselves  from  their  fami- 
lies in  search  of  things  rare  and  new,  and  novelty  converts  into  pleasures 
the  fatigues  and  even  the  perils  of  travelling.  By  children,  also,  this 
feeling  is  constantly  manifested.  We  see  them  perpetually  running  from 
place  to  place,  to  hunt  out  something  new ;  they  catch,  with  eagerness 
and  often  with  very  little  choice,  at  whatever  comes  before  them.  Now, 
by  reason  of  its  nature,  novelty  can  not  for  any  length  of  time  engross 
our  attention ;  and  hence  curiosity  is  the  most  versatile  of  all  our  affec- 

the  fact  that  a  faithful  representation  pleases,  though  the  object  copied  may  be 
absolutely  repulsive.  Explain  the  reason.  What  source  of  pleasure  to  the  im- 
agination belongs  exclusively  to  litei*ary  compositions  ? 

§  261.  What  is  the  effect  of  the  novel  on  the  imagination  f  -What,  on  the  im- 
pressions produced  by  the  beautiful  and  the  sublime  ?  How  does  the  emotion 
produced  by  novelty  compare  with  that  excited  by  beauty  ?  What  is  the  desire  to 
see  and  hear  new  things  called  ?  How  do  men  show  that  they  are  under  its  con- 
trol ?  How  is  it  manifested  by  children  ?  What  is  the  leading  characteristic  of 
curiosity  ? 


192  THE  NOVEL. 

tious.     It  is  constantly  changing  its  object,  and  always  presents  an  ap- 
pearance of  anxiety  and  restlessness. 

§  262.  Novelty  is  possessed  by  objects  in  diflferent  de- 
grees, to  which  its  effects  are  proportioned. 

I.  The  lowest  degree  is  found  in  objects  surveyed  a 
second  time  after  a  long  interval. 

Experience  teaches  us  that,  without  any  decay  of  remembrance,  ab- 
sence always  gives  an  air  of  novelty  to  a  once  familiar  object.  Thus,  a 
person  with  whom  we  have  been  intimate,  returning  from  abroad  after 
a  long  interval,  appears  almost  like  a  new  acquaintance.  Distance  of 
place  contributes  to  this  effect  no  less  than  lapse  of  time  ;  a  friend,  for 
example,  after  a  short  absence  in  a  remote  country,  has  the  same  air  of 
novelty  as  if  he  had  returned  after  a  longer  interval  from  a  place  nearer 
home.  The  mind  unconsciously  institutes  a  connection  between  him 
and  the  distant  region  he  has  visited,  and  invests  him  with  the  singu- 
larity of  the  objects  he  has  seen. 

II.  The  next  degree  of  novelty  belongs  to  objects  re- 
specting which  we  have  had  some  previous  information. 

Description,  though  it  contributes  to  familiarity,  can  not  altogether 
remove  the  appearance  of  novelty  when  the  object  itself  is  presented. 
The  first  sight  of  a  lion,  for  instance,  is  novel,  and  therefore  a  source  of 
pleasure,  although  the  beholder  may  have  previously  obtained  from  pic- 
tures, statues,  and  natural  history,  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  all  his 
peculiarities  of  appearance. 

III.  A  new  object  that  bears  some  distant  resemblance 
to  one  already  known  is  an  instance  of  the  third  degree  of 
novelty. 

We  are  familiar,  for  example,  with  the  features  of  the  Caucasian  race 
of  men,  having  seen  them  from  infancy ;  the  first  siglit  of  a  Chinese, 
however,  is  novel  and  pleasing,  because,  although  he  bears  a  resemblance 
to  those  we  already  know,  the  points  of  difference  are  sufficient  to  excite 
our  curiosity. 

IV.  The  highest  degree  of  novelty  is  that  which  char- 

§262.  To  what  arc  the  effects  of  novelty  proportioned?  In  what  objects  is 
novelty  found  in  the  lowest  degree  ?  What  is  always  the  effect  of  abpenco  ? 
What  besides  lapee  of  time  contributes  to  this  effoct?  Illustrate  this.  Wliat 
connection  Is  unconsciously  instituted  by  the  mind?  What  objects  are  charac- 
terized by  novelty  in  the  second  defrree?  What  is  the  effect  of  description? 
Illustrate  this.  What  is  the  next  blithest  degree  of  novelty  ?  Give  an  illustra- 
tion.   To  what  objects  does  the  highest  degree  of  novelty  belong  ? 


THE    WONDEKFUL. — THE    PICTURESQUE.  193 

acterizes  objects  entirely  unknown  and  bearing  no  analogy 
to  any  with  which  we  are  acquainted. 

§  263.  The  Wonderful  is  analogous  in  character  to 
the  novel,  and  is  by  some  confounded  with  it.  It  is  equally 
a  source  of  pleasure,  its  charm  consisting  principally  in  the 
production  of  unexpected  trains  of  thought. 

The  difference  between  the  novel  and  the  wonderful  is  readily  illus- 
trated. A  traveller  who  has  never  seen  an  elephant,  goes  to  a  jungle  in 
India  for  the  purpose  of  meeting  with  one  ;  if  he  succeeds,  the  sight  is 
novel  and  pleasing,  but  not  wonderful,  for  it  was  fully  expected.  A 
Hindoo,  wandering  in  America,  suddenly  sees  an  elephant  feeding  at 
large  in  a  field :  the  sight  is  not  novel,  for  he  is  accustomed  to  the  ani- 
mal ;  it  is  wonderful,  however,  because  totally  unexpected, — and  is 
pleasing  in  proportion. 

The  Chinese  appreciate  the  fact  that  the  wonderful  pleasurably  ex- 
cites the  imagination  in  a  high  degree,  and  take  advantage  of  it  in  the 
embellishment  of  their  gardens,  which,  we  may  add,  are  among  the  finest 
in  the  world.  A  torrent,  for  example,  is  conveyed  under  the  ground, 
that  the  visitor  may  be  at  a  loss  to  divine  whence  the  unusual  sound  pro- 
ceeds ;  and,  to  multiply  still  stranger  noises,  subterranean  cavities  are 
devised  in  every  variety.  Sometimes  one  is  unexpectedly  led  into  a  dark 
cave,  which  still  more  unexpectedly  terminates  in  a  landscape  enriched 
with  all  the  beauties  that  nature  can  afford.  In  another  quarter,  en- 
chanting paths  lead  to  a  rough  field,  where  bushes,  briers,  and  stones, 
interrupt  the  passage ;  and,  while  means  of  egress  are  being  sought,  a 
magnificent  vista  opens  on  the  view. 

§  264.  The  Picturesque  is  by  some  regarded  simply  as 
a  variation  of  the  beautiful,  and  treated  under  that  head. 
The  term  seems,  however,  to  be  applied  to  objects  which 
have  a  rugged  appearance,  in  contradistinction  to  such  as 
are  sublime  or  beautiful,  particularly  when  introduced  among 
the  latter  by  way  of  contrast.  Affecting  the  mind  at  first 
with  an  emotion  of  surprise,  such  objects  soon  give  birth  to 

§  263.  To  what  is  the  wonderful  analogous  ?  In  what  does  its  charm  consist  ? 
Illustrate  the  difference  between  the  novel  and  the  wonderful.  What  use  do  the 
Chinese  make  of  the  fact  that  the  wonderful  pleasurahly  excites  the  imagination  ? 
Show  how  they  apply  this  principle  in  their  gardens, 

§  264.  To  what  do  some  regard  the  picturesque  as  belonging?  To  what  objecta 
does  this  term  seem  rather  to  be  applied  ?  With  what  emotion  do  picturesque 
objects  first  affect  the  mind  ?    To  what  do  they  soon  give  birth  ?    Mention  some 

9 


194  THE   SUBLIME. 

an  additional  train  of  images  which  the  scene  itself  would 
not  have  suggested.  A  ruined  tower  in  the  midst  of  a  deep 
wood,  an  old  bridge  flung  across  a  chasm  between  rocks,  a 
moss-covered  cottage  on  a  precipice,  are  instances  of  the 
picturesque.  We  have  other  examples  in  a  stream  with  a 
broken  surface  and  an  irregular  motion ;  and,  among  trees, 
not  in  the  smooth  young  beech  or  the  fresh  and  tender  ash, 
but  in  the  gnarled  oak  and  knotty  elm. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  picturesque  objects  should  be  of  great  size ; 
it  is  enough  if  they  are  rough  and  scraggy,  if  they  indicate  age  by  their 
appearance  and  have  forms  characterized  by  sudden  variations.  Among 
animals,  the  ass  is  generally  regarded  as  more  picturesque  than  the 
horse  ;  and,  among  horses,  it  is  to  the  wild  and  rough  forester  or  the  worn- 
out  cart-horse,  that  this  epithet  is  applied.  In  our  own  species,  objects 
merely  picturesque  are  to  be  found  among  the  wandering  tribes  of  gip- 
sies and  beggars ;  who,  in  all  their  characteristics,  bear  a  close  analogy 
to  the  wild  forester  and  worn-out  cart-horse,  as  well  as  to  old  mills, 
hovels,  and  similar  inanimate  objects. 


LESSON    XXXIX. 

THE     SUBLIME.        < 

§  265.  The  term  Sublimity,  for  which  Grandeue  is  by 
some  used  as  an  equivalent,  is  applied  to  great  and  noble  ol> 
jects  which  produce  a  sort  of  internal  elevation  and  expan- 
sion. The  emotion,  though  pleasing,  is  of  a  serious  character, 
and,  when  awakened  in  the  liighest  degree,  may  be  designated 
even  as  severe,  solemn,  and  awful ;  being  thus  readily  distin- 
guishable from  the  liveher  feelings  produced  by  the  beautiful. 

picturesque  obJectB.  What  is  the  leading  characteristic  of  such  objocts  ?  Is  the 
ass  or  the  horse  the  more  pictarcsquo  ?  To  what  kind  of  horses  is  this  epithet 
applicable  ?  What  members  of  our  own  species  present  a  picturesque  appear- 
ance ?    To  what  arc  they  analogous  in  character  ? 

§  2G5.  What  word  is  used  as  an  equivalent  for  stiblimify?    To  what  arc  these 
tonus  appliod  ?    Describe  the  emotion  produced  by  sublimity. 


THE    SUBLIME.  195 

The  principal  source  of  the  sublime  is  might,  or  power, 
in  a  state  cf  active  exertion.  Hence  the  grandeur  of  earth- 
quakes and  volcanoes ;  of  great  conflagrations ;  of  the 
stormy  ocean  and  mighty  torrent;  of  lightning,  tempests, 
and  all  violent  commotions  of  the  elements. 

A  streaifi  that  confines  itself  to  its  banks  is  a  beautiful  object ;  but, 
when  it  rushes  with  the  impetuosity  of  a  torrent,  it  becomes  sublime. 
"  The  sight  of  a  small  fire,"  says  Longinus,  "  produces  no  emotion ;  but 
we  are  struck  with  the  boiling  furnace  of  Etna,  pouring  out  whole  rivers 
of  liquid  flame."  The  engagement  of  two  great  armies,  being  the  high- 
est exertion  of  human  might,  constitutes  one  of  the  noblest  and  most 
magnificent  spectacles  that  can  be  presented  to  the  eye,  or  exhibited  to 
the  imagination  in  description.  Lions  and  other  anunals  of  strength  are 
subjects  of  some  of  the  grandest  passages.  In  what  sublime  terms  is  the 
war-horse  described  in  Job ! 

"Hast  thou  given  the  horse  strength?  hast  thou  clothed  his  neck 
with  thunder  ?  Canst  thou  make  him  afraid  as  a  grasshopper  ?  The 
glory  of  his  nostrils  is  terrible.  He  paweth  in  the  valley,  and  rejoiceth 
in  his  strength ;  he  goeth  on  to  meet  the  armed  men.  He  mocketh  at 
fear,  and  is  not  affrighted ;  neither  turneth  he  back  from  the  sword. 
The  quiver  rattleth  against  him,  the  glittering  spear  and  the  shield.  He 
swalloweth  the  ground  with  fierceness  and  rage;  neither  believeth  he 
that  it  is  the  sound  of  the  trumpet.  He  saith  among  the  trumpets,  Ha, 
ha !  and  he  smelleth  the  battle  afar  ofif." 

The  description  of  the  leviathan  is  worked  up  in  the  same  book  with 
fine  effect :—  • 

"  Canst  thou  draw  out  leviathan  with  an  hook  ?  or  his  tongue  with  a 
cord  which  thou  lettest  down  ?  Canst  thou  put  an  hook  into  his  nose  ? 
or  bore  his  jaw  through  with  a  thorn  ?  Wilt  thou  play  with  him  as 
with  a  bird  ?  or  wilt  thou  bind  him  for  thy  maidens  ?  By  his  neesings 
a  light  doth  shine,  and  his  eyes  are  like  the  eyelids  of  the  morning. 
Out  of  his  mouth  go  burning  lamps,  and  sparks  of  fire  leap  out.  Out  of 
his  nostrils  goeth  smoke,  as  out  of  a  seething  pot  or  caldron.  His 
breath  kindleth  coals,  and  a  flame  goeth  out  of  his  mouth.  In  his  neck 
remameth  strength,  and  sorrow  is  turned  into  joy  before  him." 

§  266.  The  simplest  form  in  which  sublimity  develops 

What  is  the  principal  source  of  the  sublime  ?  From  this  source  what  derive 
their  grandeur  ?  How  is  a  stream  that  confines  itself  to  its  banks  characterized  ? 
When  does  the  same  stream  become  sublime  ?  Repeat  the  remark  of  Longinus. 
What  is  the  highest  exertion  of  human  might  ?  What  kmd  of  a  spectacle  does  a 
battle,  therefore,  constitute?  What  animals  form  the  subject  of  some  of  the 
grandest  passages?  Where  are  the  war-horse  and  the  leviathan  described  in 
sublime  terms  ?    Repeat  these  descriptions. 

§  266.  WTiat  is  the  simplest  form  in  which  sublunity  develops  itself?    Give 


196  THE   SUBLIME. 

itself  is  vastness.  Wide-extended  plains,  to  which  the  eye 
discerns  no  limit ;  the  firmament  of  heaven ;  the  boimdless 
expanse  of  ocean, — furnish  us  with  familiar  examples. 

To  connect  greatness  of  size  with  greatness  of  character  is  natural, 
particularly  with  unenlightened  minds.  The  Scythians,  for  example, 
were  so  impressed  with  the  fame  of  Alexander  the  Great  that  they 
thought  he  must  be  a  giant,  and  were  astonished  when  they  found  him 
to  be  rather  under  than  above  their  own  size. 

The  mind  is  inadequate  to  the  conception  of  infinity,  and  intuitively 
invests  whatever  approaches  it  with  a  character  of  grandeur.  Hence, 
infinite  space,  endless  numbers,  and  eternal  duration,  possess  this  qual- 
ity in  an  eminent  degree.  It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  where 
there  is  such  variety  in  the  parts  of  any  object  that  one  can  not  be 
inferred  from  another,  unless  they  are  of  such  size  that  all  can  bo 
taken  in  at  one  view,  a  portion  of  the  sublimity  is  lost.  "When  there  id 
such  immensity  that  the  whole  can  not  be  comprehended  at  once,  the 
mind  is  distracted  rather  than  satisfied,  and  is  excited  only  to  an  infe- 
rior degree  of  pleasure.  With  the  sky  and  the  ocean  this  is  not  the 
case ;  because  what  is  invisible  is  the  counterpart  of  what  we  see,  and 
from  such  portions  as  meet  the  eye  imagination  can  readily  draw  the 
picture  of  such  as  are  concealed  from  it.  When,  however,  every  part 
must  be  seen  that  an  idea  of  the  whole  may  be  formed,  any  degree  of 
magnitude  inconsistent  with  distinctness  diminishes  the  effect.  Addi- 
son's observation  is  therefore  just,  that  there  would  have  been  more 
true  sublimity  in  one  of  Lysippus'  ^utues  of  Alexander,  though  no 
larger  than  life,  than  in  the  vast  Mount  Athos,  had  it  been  cut  into  the 
figure  of  the  hero,  according  to  the  proposition  of  Phidias,  with  a  river 
in  one  hand,  and  a  city  in  the  other. 

§  267.  All  vastness  produces  the  impression  of  sublimity. 
This  impression,  however,  is  less  vivid  in  objects  extended 
in  length  or  breadth  than  in  such  as  are  vast  by  reason  of 
their  lieight  or  depth.  Though  a  boundless  plain  is  a  gnind 
object,  yet  a  high  mountain  to  which  we  look  up,  or  an  awful 


some  familiar  examples.  With  what  in  it  natural  to  connect  {rreatneps  of  charac- 
ter ?  What  did  the  Scythians  think  rcnpectins;  Alexander  the  Great  ?  To  what  is 
the  mind  inadequate  ?  What  ohjects,  therefore,  are  eminently  prand  ?  When 
there  is  variety  in  tlie  parts  of  an  object,  what  docfroe  of  mntrnitnde  is  inconsistent 
with  the  highest  eublimity  ?  Why  does  not  this  principle  operate  In  the  caeeof  tho 
pky  and  the  ocean  ?  ^Vhat  remark  docs  Addison  make  in  illustration  of  this  point  ? 
§  207.  With  the  same  eize,  in  what  directions  must  bodies  be  extended,  to  bo 
most  Bublime  ?    IIovv  does  v  boimdless  plain  compare  with  a  high  mountain  or 


TtlE   SUBLIME.  l9Y 

precipice  or  tower  from  which  we  contelnplate  objects  be- 
neath, is  still  grander.  The  sublimity  of  the  firmament 
arises  as  w^ell  from  its  height  as  from  its  vast  extent. 

Our  every-day  actions  show  that  we  are  aware  of  the  effect  produced 
on  the  mind  by  elevation.  We  raise  lofty  monuments,  and  on  their  tops 
place  the  statues  of  our  heroes,  at  as  great  a  height  as  is  compatible 
with  distinctness  of  view.  So,  thrones  are  erected  for  kings,  and  ele- 
vated seats  for  judges  and  magistrates.  Among  all  nations,  Heaven 
is  placed  far  above,  Hell  far  below.  "Why  are  these  directions  preferred 
to  all  others,  if  the  mind  does  not  instinctively  connect  an  idea  of  gran- 
deur with  great  height  and  depth  ? 

§  268.  The  solemn  and  the  terrible  are  important  ele- 
ments of  the  sublime ;  hence,  darkness,  solitude,  and  silence, 
which  have  a  tendency  to  fill  the  mind  with  awe,  contribute 
much  to  sublimity.  It  is  not  the  gay  landscape,  the  flowery 
field,  or  the  flourishing  city,  that  produces  the  em.otion  of 
grandeur ;  but  the  hoary  mountain,  and  the  solitary  lake ; 
the  aged  forest,  and  the  torrent  falling  down  the  precipice. 

Hence,  too,  night  scenes  are  generally  the  most  sublime.  The  firma- 
ment, when  filled  with  stars  in  magnificent  profusion,  strikes  the  imagi- 
nation with  a  more  awful  grandeur  than  when  we  view  it  enlightened  by 
the  brightest  noonday  sun.  The  sound  of  a  bell  and  the  striking  of  a 
large  clock  are  at  any  time  grand ;  but  they  become  doubly  so,  when 
heard  amid  the  stillness  of  night.  In  descriptions  of  the  Deity,  darkness 
is  often  introduced,  and  with  great  effect,  as  a  means  of  imparting  addi- 
tional sublimity  to  the  subject.  "  He  maketh  darkness  his  pavilion," 
saith  the  inspired  writer ;  "  He  dwelleth  in  the  thick  cloud."  So, 
Milton  :— 

"  How  oft,  amidst 

Thick  clouds  and  dark,  does  Heaven's  all-ruling  Sire 

Choose  to  reside,  his  glory  unobsenred, 

And  with  the  majesty  of  darkness  round 

Circles  his  throne  ! " 

§  269.  Obscurity  is  another  source  of  the  sublime.     We 

an  awful  precipice ?  To  what  is  the  sublimity  of  the  firmament  owing?  How, 
in  every-day  life,  do  we  avail  ourselves  of  the  effects  produced  by  elevation  ? 
Why  do  all  nations  locate  Heaven  above  them,  and  Hell  below  ? 

§  268.  What  other  elements  contribute  largely  to  the  sublime  ?  Give  instances 
of  their  effect.  As  regards  sublimity,  what  is  the  effect  of  darkness  on  the  heav- 
ens, the  sound  of  bells,  &c.  ?  What  is  often  introduced  into  descriptions  of  the 
Deity,  and  with  what  effect  ?    Give  an  earamplc  from  Scripture ;  from  Milton. 


198  THE    SUBLIME. 

have  said  that  in  natural  and  visible  objects,  when  a  portion 
of  the  form  is  seen,  it  is  essential  that  the  whole  be  within 
reach  of  the  eye,  unless  there  is  such  uniformity  that  its  ap- 
pearance can  be  readily  inferred.  When  no  part,  however, 
is  visible  or  material,  but  the  whole  is  left  to  imagination, 
the  obscurity  and  uncertainty  fill  the  mind  with  indescribable 
awe.  Thus  we  find  that  descriptions  of  supernatural  beings 
are  characterized  by  subHmity,  though  the  ideas  they  yield 
are  confused  and  indistinct.  The  superior  power  we  at- 
tribute to  such  beings,  the  obscurity  -vvith  wliich  they  are 
veiled,  and  the  awe  they  awaken  in  our  minds,  necessarily 
render  them  sublime.  The  grand  effect  of  obscurity  is  ol> 
vious  in  the  following  passage  from  the  book  of  Job : — 

"  In  thoughts  from  the  visions  of  the  night,  when  deep  sleep  fallcth 
on  men  fear  came  upon  me,  and  trembling,  which  made  all  my  bones 
to  shake.  Then  a  spirit  passed  before  my  face ;  the  hair  of  my  flesh 
stood  up.  It  stood  still,  but  I  could  not  discern  the  form  thereof:  an 
image  was  before  mine  eyes,  there  was  silence,  and  I  heard  a  voice,  say- 
ing, *  Shall  mortal  man  be  more  just  than  God  ?  shall  a  man  be  more 
pure  than  his  Maker  ?  '  " 

As  a  general  principle,  all  objects  greatly  elevated,  or  far  removed  as 
regards  either  space  or  time,  are  apt  to  strike  us  as  grand.  Whatever 
is  viewed  through  the  mist  of  distance  or  antiquity  looms  larger  than  its 
natural  size.  Hence  epic  poets  find  it  expedient  to  select  as  heroes  the 
great  personages  of  bygone  times,  rather  than  those  of  their  own  day, 
though  equally  distinguished. 

It  follows  that  no  ideas  are  so  sublime  as  those  connected 
with  the  Supreme  Being,  the  least  loiown  but  incomparably 
the  greatest  of  all  tilings ;  the  infinity  of  whose  nature  and 
the  eternity  of  whose  duration,  joined  to  the  immensity  of 
His  power,  though  they  transcend  our  concei:)tions,  yet  exalt 
them  in  the  highest  degree. 

§  370.  Sublimity  is  also  frequently  heightened  by  disor- 

§260.  What  is  another  source  of  the  Piiblime?  Show  the  difference  in  this 
respect  between  material  and  immaterial  things.  What  is  said  of  supematuml 
f)bject8  ?  Quote  from  Job  a  sublime  passage  descriptive  of  a  spirit.  As  a  general 
principle,  what  ol)ject8  strike  us  as  grand?  Wliy  do  epic  poets  select  as  herooa 
personages  of  bygone  times  ?    With  whom  are  our  sublimest  ideas  connected  ? 

§  270.  By  what  is  sublimity  frequently  heightened?    What  feeling  docs  strict 


THE   SUBLIME.  199 

der.  When  we  gaze  at  things  strictly  regular  in  their  out- 
line and  methodical  in  the  arrangement  of  their  parts,  we  feel 
a  sense  of  confinement  incompatible  with  mental  expansion. 
Exact  proportion  of  parts,  though  it  often  contributes  additional  ef- 
fect to  the  beautiful,  seldom  enters  into  the  sublime.  A  great  mass  of 
rocks  thrown  wildly  and  confusedly  together  by  the  hand  of  nature  pro- 
duces a  greater  impression  of  grandeur  on  the  mind  than  if  they  had  been 
adjusted  to  each  other  with  the  utmost  taste  and  care. 

§  271.  We  have  thus  far  considered  sublimity  as  belong- 
ing to  visible  things  merely ;  it  may,  however,  characterize 
objects  of  hearing,  as  well  as  those  of  sight.  Among  the 
arts  which  please  the  imagination  through  the  ear,  poetry 
and  rhetoric  have  already  been  enumerated.  Though,  with 
the  aid  of  conventional  characters  wliich  represent  words 
and  thereby  ideas,  they  address  the  eye,  and  may  therefore 
be  understood  by  the  deaf,  yet  they  are  to  be  regarded  as 
primarily  appeahng  to  the  ear,  and  governed  by  principles 
laid  down  with  the  direct  view  of  producing  the  livehest  ef- 
fect on  that  organ.  Accordingly,  under  the  head  of  sublim- 
ity, as  pertaining  to  objects  of  hearing,  we  must  treat  of  the 
sublime  in  writing ;  and  this,  by  reason  of  its  importance, 
will  constitute  a  separate  lesson.  It  remains  for  us  here  to 
enumerate  the  sounds  characterized  by  sublimity.  These 
are  included  in  five  classes,  as  follows : — 
I.  Those  associated  with  ideas  of  danger ;  such  as,  the  howling  of  a 

storm,  the  rumbling  of  an  earthquake,  the  groaning  of  a  volcano, 

the  roaring  of  thunder,  the  report  of  artillery. 
II.  Those  associated  with  great  power  actively  exerted ;  as,  the  noise  of 

a  torrent,  the  fall  of  a  cataract,  the  uproar  of  a  tempest,  the  dash  of 

waves,  the  crackling  of  a  conflagration. 
III.  Those  associated  with  ideas  of  majesty,  solemnity,  deep  melancholy, 

or  profound  grief ;  as,  the  sound  of  the  trumpet  and  other  warlike 

instruments,  the  notes  of  the  organ,  the  toUing  of  a  bell,  &c. 

regularity  produce  ?    To  what  does  exact  proportion  of  parts  contribute  ?    In 
what  position  do  massive  rocks  produce  the  greatest  impression  of  grandeur? 

§271.  To  what,  besides  objects  of  sight,  does  sublimity  belong  ?  To  what 
sense  are  the  arts  of  poetry  and  rhetoric  addressed  ?  With  what  three  classes  of 
ideas  must  sounds  be  associated,  in  order  to  be  sublime  ?  Give  examples  of  each. 


200  THE   SUBLIME. 

IV.  Of  the  notes  of  animals,  those  awaken  the  emotion  of  grandeur 
which  are  known  to  proceed  from  strong  or  ferocious  creatures.  As 
examples  of  this  class,  the  roar  of  the  lion,  the  growling  of  bears, 
the  howling  of  wolves,  and  the  scream  of  the  eagle,  may  be  men- 
tioned. 

V.  Those  sounds  of  the  human  voice  may  be  accounted  sublime  which 
indicate  that  the  more  serious  emotions, — sorrow,  terror,  and  the 
like, — arc  strongly  excited.  The  tones  which,  in  general,  denote  a 
high  degree  of  emotion,  will  be  found  to  be  loud,  grave,  lengthened, 
and  swelling. 

§  272.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  sublimity  of  sound  arises, 
not  from  any  inherent  quality  or  independent  fitness  to  pro- 
duce the  emotion,  but  exclusively  from  the  association  of 
ideas. 

This  is  evident  from  the  fact  that,  as  soon  as  the  sound  is  separated 
from  the  idea,  it  ceases  to  be  sublime.  Thus,  persons  who  are  afraid  of 
thunder  frequently  mistake  some  common  sound  for  it,  such  as  the  roll- 
ing of  a  cart  or  carriage.  While  the  mistake  continues,  they  feel  an 
emotion  of  sublimity ;  but,  the  moment  they  are  undeceived,  they  are  the 
first  to  laugh  at  their  error  and  ridicule  the  noise  that  occasioned  it. 
Similar  mistakes  are  often  made,  in  those  countries  where  earthquakes 
are  common,  between  inconsiderable  sounds  and  the  low  rumbling  noise 
which  is  said  to  precede  such  an  event ;  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  the 
moment  the  truth  is  discovered,  the  emotion  of  sublimity  is  at  an  end. 
So,  children  are  at  first  as  much  impressed  with  the  thunder  of  the 
theatre  as  with  that  of  the  genuine  tempest ;  but,  when  they  understand 
the  delusion,  regard  it  as  no  more  than  the  insignificant  noises  they  hear 
every  day.  Again,  to  the  Highlander  the  sound  of  the  bag-pipe  is  sub- 
lime, because  it  is  the  martial  instrument  of  his  country,  and  is  con- 
stantly associated  with  splendid  and  magnificent  images  ;  to  the  rest  of 
the  world,  the  instrument  is  at  best  barely  tolera])le.  Finally,  that  sub- 
limity in  the  tones  of  animals  arises  from  associations  with  their  charac- 
ter seems  obvious  from  several  considerations.  The  howl  of  the  wolf 
differs  little  from  that  of  the  dog  either  in  tone  or  strength ;  but  there  is 

Of  the  notes  of  animals,  which  awaken  the  emotion  of  grandeur  f  What  sonods 
of  the  human  voice  arc  accounted  eublimo  ?  What  tones  denote  a  high  degree  of 
emotion  ? 

§  272.  From  what  docs  the  eublimhy  of  noinid  arifo  ?  What  evidence  is  there 
of  thit??  IlhiPtratc  the  point  b}'  PtJitinL;  what  takes  place  wlien  some  iusiiniificant 
Bound  is  mlytakon  for  thunder  or  the  rumbling  of  an  earthqualce.  How  is  the 
Bound  of  the  bag-pipe  rogiudcd  by  tlio  Higlilandors  f    How,  by  the  rest  of  the 


TliE  StTBLlME  m  WUlTIi^G.  201 

no  comparison  between  them  in  point  of  sublimity,  because  we  know  the 
one  to  be  a  savage,  and  the  other  a  domestic,  animal.  There  are  few 
animal  sounds  so  loud  as  the  lowing  of  a  cow ;  yet  it  will  be  admitted 
that  it  is  far  from  being  characterized  by  sublimity.  We  may,  therefore, 
infer  that  sounds  possess  this  quality,  not  by  reason  of  any  inherent 
character,  but  only  through  the  associations  connected  with  them. 


LESSON   XL. 

THE     SUBLIME     IN     WEITING. 

§  273.  Foe  a  literary  composition  to  possess  sublimity,  it 
is  necessary  that  the  subject  be*  sublime ;  that,  if  a  scene  or 
natural  object,  it  be  one  which,  exhibited  to  us  in  reality, 
would  inspire  us  with  thoughts  of  the  elevated,  awful,  and 
magnificent  character  that  has  been  described.  This  ex- 
cludes what  is  merely  beautiful,  gay,  or  elegant.  If  it  be 
attempted,  w^itli  the  aid  of  rhetoric,  to  make  any  such  object 
the  theme  of  a  sublime  composition,  the  effort  will  prove  a 
failure,  and  bombast  or  frigidity  of  style  will  result. 

§  274.  "We  shall  find,  then,  that  the  passages  generally 
accounted  sublime  are,  for  the  most  part,  descriptions  of  the 
natural  objects  mentioned  in  the  last  lesson  as  capable  of 
producing  the  emotion  of  grandeur ;  or,  in  other  words,  of 
what  is  vast,  mighty,  magnificent,  obscure,  dark,  solemn, 
loud,  pathetic,  or  terrible. 

Shakspeare,  in  the  following  lines,  furnishes  us  with  a  fine  example 
of  sublimity,  arising  from  the  vastness  of  the  objects  successively  prc- 


world  ?  What  occasions  the  difference  ?  From  what  docs  sublimity  in  the  toue<< 
of  animals  ariee  ?    Illustrate  this. 

§  273.  What  is  cssentiiil  to  sublimity  in  a  literary  composition?  If  a  scene  or 
natural  object  is  treated  of,  what  must  be  its  character?  What  is  excluded? 
What  will  result,  if  it  be  attempted  to  write  sublimely  on  a  trivial  subject  ? 

§  274.  Of  what,  then,  for  the  most  part,  are  sublime  passages  descriptions  ? 
Repeat  the  quotation  from  Shakspeare,  and  show  wherein  its  sublimity  consists, 


202  THE   SUBLIME  IN  WRITTNG. 

sented,  and  the  pathetic  thought  that  all  this  magnificence  and  greatness 
is  destined  to  destruction : — 

"  The  cload-capt  towers,  the  gorgeous  palaces, 
The  solemn  temples,  the  great  globe  itself, 
Yea,  all  which  it  inherit,  shall  dissolve  ; 
And,  like  an  insubstantial  pageant  faded, 
Leave  not  a  rack  behind." 

As  observed  in  §  265,  battles  are  among  the  sublimest  spectacles  on 
which  the  eye  can  gaze,  by  reason  of  their  displaying  immense  power  in 
the  act  of  violent  exertion.  We  may,  therefore,  look  for  the  same  ele- 
ment of  grandeur  in  descriptions  of  such  scenes.  Ilomer  furnishes  one 
of  the  sublimest,  as  well  as  earliest,  in  the  whole  range  of  poetry : — 

"  When  now  gathered  on  either  side,  the  hosts  plunged  together  in 
fight ;  shield  is  harshly  laid  to  shield ;  spears  crash  on  the  brazen  corse- 
lets; bossy  buckler  with  buckler  meets;  loud  tumult  rages  over  all; 
groans  are  mixed  with  the  exultmg  shouts  of  men ;  the  slain  and  the 
slayer  join  their  cries  ;  the  earth  is  floating  round  with  blood.  As  when 
two  rushing  streams  from  two  mountains  come  roaring  down,  and  throw 
together  their  rapid  waters  below,  they  roar  along  the  gulfy  vale.  The 
startled  shepherd  hears  the  sound,  as  he  stalks  o'er  the  distant  hills ;  so, 
as  they  mixed  in  fight,  from  both  armies  clamor  with  loud  terror  arose." 

From  Ossian  we  take  another  description  of  a  battle-scene,  which 
bears,  it  will  be  observed,  a  decided  resemblance  to  the  one  last  quoted, 
both  in  the  enumeration  of  circumstances  and  in  the  comparison  of  the 
contending  hosts  to  two  mountain  torrents.  Both  are  eminently  sub- 
lime, presenting  to  us  in  a  few  words  a  succession  of  striking  images : — 

"  Like  Autumn's  dark  storms  pouring  from  two  echoing  hills,  towards 
each  other  approached  the  heroes ;  as  two  dark  streams  from  high  rocks 
meet  and  roar  on  the  plain,  loud,  rough,  and  dark  in  battle,  meet  Loch- 
lin  and  Inisfail.  Chief  mixes  his  strokes  with  chief,  and  man  with  man  ! 
Steel  sounds  on  steel,  and  helmets  are  cleft  on  high :  blood  bui-sts  and 
smokes  around :  strings  murmur  on  the  polished  yews :  darts  rush  along 
the  sky :  spears  fall  like  circles  of  light  which  gild  the  stormy  face  of 
night. 

"  As  the  noise  of  the  troubled  ocean  when  roll  the  waves  on  high,  as 
the  last  peal  of  thundering  heaven,  such  is  the  noise  of  battle.  Though 
Cormac's  hundred  bards  were  there,  feeble  were  the  voice  of  a  hundred 
bards  to  send  the  deaths  to  future  times  ;  for  many  were  the  deaths  of 
the  heroes,  and  wide  poured  the  blood  of  the  valiant." 


What  arc  among  the  sublimest  spectacles,  and  why  ?  What  follows  with  re- 
spect to  descriptions  of  battle-scenes  ?  From  what  two  authors  arc  general  de- 
scriptions of  battles  quoted?  Uow  do  they  compare  in  point  of  sublimity  ?  In 
What  respects  do  they  resemble  each  other  ?  What  other  poet's  description  of  a 
similar  scene  is  presented  ?  Repeat  it.  How,  in  your  opinion,  does  It  compare 
in  point  of  grandeur  with  the  two  extracts  just  given  f 


THE   SUBLIME  IN  WBITING.  203 

Compare  with  these  the  line  passage  in  the  sixth  book  of  Paradise 
Lost,  than  which  nothing  could  be  more  lofty  or  forcible : — 

"  Now  storming  fary  rose, 
And  clamor  such  as  heard  in  Heaven  till  now 
Was  never ;  arms  on  armor  clashing  brayed 
Horrible  discord,  and  the  madding  wheels 
Of  brazen  chariots  raged ;  dire  was  the  noise 
Of  conflict ;  overhead  the  dismal  hiss 
Of  fiery  darts  in  flaming  volleys  flew, 
And  flying  vaulted  either  host  with  Are. 

So  under  fiery  cope  together  rushed  "^ 

Both  battles  main,  with  ruinous  assault 
And  inextinguishable  rage ;  all  Heaven 
Resounded ;  and,  had  earth  been  theo,  all  earth 
Had  to  her  centre  shook." 

Darkness,  obscurity,  and  difficulty,  are  introduced  with  fine  effect  into 
the  following  passage  from  Milton,  which  describes  the  travelling  of  the 
fallen  angels  through  their  dismal  habitation : — 

"  O'er  many  a  dark  and  dreary  vale 
They  passed,  and  many  a  region  dolorous ; 
O'er  many  a  frozen,  many  a  fieiy  Alp ; 
Rocks,  caves,  lakes^  fens,  bogs,  dens,  and  shades,  of  death— 
A  universe  of  death." 

Seldom  has  a  supernatural  being  been  represented  with  such  genuine 
sublimity  as  in  the  following  fine  extract  from  Ossian,  descriptive  of 
Fingal's  interview  with  the  spirit  of  Loda.  The  ghost  is  invested  with 
obscurity,  might,  and  terror ;  the  king  of  Morven,  with  fearless  heroism ; 
the  darkness  of  night  is  around :  all  things  contribute  to  intensify  the 
sublimity,  with  which,  it  may  be  added,  the  simple  sententiousness  of 
the  style  is  eminently  in  keeping : — 

"  A  blast  came  from  the  mountain :  on  its  wings  was  the  spirit  of 
Loda.  He  came  to  his  place  in  his  terrors,  and  shook  his  dusky  spear. 
His  eyes  appear  like  flames  in  his  dark  face :  his  voice  is  like  distant 
thunder.  Fingal  advanced  his  spear  in  night,  and  raised  his  voice  on 
high.  *  Son  of  night,  retire  :  call  thy  winds,  and  fly  !  Why  dost  thou 
come  to  my  presence  with  thy  shadowy  arms  ?  Do  I  fear  thy  gloomy 
form,  spirit  of  dismal  Loda?  Weak  is  thy  shield  of  clouds;  feeble  is 
.  that  meteor  thy  sword  I  The  blast  rolls  them  together :  and  thou  thy- 
self art  lost.    Fly  from  my  presence,  son  of  night !  call  thy  winds  and 

•fly!' 

What  other  passage  is  presented  from  Milton  ?  What  points  are  introduced 
with  fine  efi"ect  ?  What  specimen  is  given  of  descriptions  of  supernatural  ob- 
jects ?  With  what  is  the  ghost  invested  ?  With  what,  the  king  ?  What  con- 
tributes to  intensify  the  sublimity  ? 

How  is  the  spirit  of  Loda  described  ?  What  does  it  command  Fingal  to  do  ? 
What  is  the  result  of  the  interview  ? 


204  THE   StriJLlME   IN   WRITiNG. 

"  '  Dost  thou  force  mc  from  my  place  ?  '  replied  the  hollow  Toiec.  '  I 
turn  the  battle  in  the  field  of  the  brave.  1  look  on  the  nations,  and 
they  vanish :  my  nostrils  pour  the  blast  of  death.  I  come  abroad  on  the 
winds :  the  tempests  are  before  my  lace.  But  ray  dwelling  is  calm  above 
the  clouds  ;  pleasant  are  the  fields  of  my  rest.' 

"  '  Dwell  in  thy  pleasant  fields,'  said  the  king.  '  Let  Comhal's  son  be 
forgotten.  Do  my  steps  ascend  from  my  hills  into  thy  peaceful  plains  * 
Do  I  meet  thee  with  a  spear  on  thy  cloud,  spirit  of  dismal  Loda  ?  Why 
then  dost  thou  frown  on  me?  Why  shake  thine  airy  spear?  Thou 
frowncst  in  vain :  I  never  fled  from  the  mighty  in  war ;  and  shall  the 
sons  of  the  wind  frighten  the  king  of  Morven?  Xo — he  knows  the 
weakness  of  their  arms.' 

"  '  Fly  to  thy  land,'  replied  the  form ;  '  take  to  the  wind,  and  fly ! 
The  blasts  are  in  the  hollow  of  my  hand :  the  course  of  the  storm  is 
mine.     Fly  to  thy  land,  son  of  Comhal,  or  feel  my  flaming  wrath  ! ' 

"  He  lifted  high  his  shadowy  spear !  he  bent  forward  his  dreadful 
height.  Fingal,  advancing,  drew  his  sword,  the  blade  of  dark-brown 
Luno.  The  gleaming  path  of  the  steel  winds  through  the  gloomy  ghost. 
The  form  fell  shapeless  into  air." 

§  275.  Besides  the  objects  enumerated  in  the  last  lesson, 
there  is  another  class  from  which  the  subjects  of  the  sub- 
limest  passages  are  often  taken.  They  consist  of  the  great 
and  heroic  feelings  and  acts  of  men ;  and  the  elevation 
which  distinguishes  them  is  generally  known  as  the  moral 
or  sentimental  sublime.  When,  in  an  extremely  critical 
position,  a  person  forgets  all  selfish  interests  and  is  con- 
trolled by  high  inflexible  principles,  we  have  an  instance  of 
the  moral  sublime. 

The  most  fruitful  sources  of  moral  sublimity  are  these : — 

I.  Firmness  in  the  cause  of  truth  and  justice. 

Of  this  species  of  heroism,  ancient  Roman  history  furnishes  many 
distinguished  examples.  Brutus,  with  unyielding  sternness  sentencing 
his  sons  to  death,  for  having  conspired  against  their  country ;  and  Titus 
Manlius,  ordering  his  son  to  the  stake,  for  engaging  with  an  enemy  con- 
trary to  his  command ; — excite  in  our  minds  the  most  elevated  ideas. 
Socrates  is  another  instance,  who  chose  to  die  by  hemlock,  though  means 
of  escape  were  in  his  power,  because  their  employment  might  have  been 
construed  into  an  admission  of  guilt.     Above  all,  among  never-to-be-for- 

§  275.  What  is  meant  by  the  moral  or  pontiinontal  sublimo  ?  When  have  wo 
instances  of  the  moral  Bublimc  ?  What  is  the  first  source  of  moral  publiinity  f 
Wliat  history  furnishes  us  examples  of  this  species  of  heroism  ?  Mention  two. 
What  illustration  is  aflbrilcnl  by  Socnitos'  career  ?  What  other  memorable  ex- 
amples are  cited  ?  What  is  the  second  source  of  the  moral  sublime  ?  Show  how 
the  Btoiy  of  Damon  and  Pythias  faroishcs  two  examples  of  moral  enblimity. 


TiiE   SliBLBlE   IN   WRITING.  ^05 

gotten  instances  of  the  moral  sublime,  arc  to  be  mentioned  the  heroic 
deaths  of  the  Christian  martyrs,  who,  amid  tortures  inconceivable,  in 
flames  and  on  the  rack,  testified  to  the  reality  of  their  faith. 

II.  Generous  self-sacrifice  in  behalf  of  another. 

The  story  of  Damon  and  Pythias,  the  former  of  whom,  having  in- 
curred the  enmity  of  the  tyrant  Dionysius,  was  by  him  sentenced  to 
death,  furnishes  us  with  two  remarkable  examples  :  first,  that  of 
Pythias,  who  remains  as  hostage  during  his  friend's  farewell  visit  to  his 
family,  on  condition  of  suffering  in  his  stead  if  he  does  not  return  at  the 
appointed  time ;  and,  secondly,  that  of  Damon,  who,  refusing  to  profit 
by  the  self-devotion  of  Pythias,  comes  back  in  season  to  redeem  his 
pledge.  We  find  another  forcible  illustration  in  the  career  of  Coriola- 
nus ;  when,  after  having  been  besought  in  vain  by  the  leading  men  of 
Rome,  he  yields  to  his  mother's  tears  and  prayers,  though  aware  that 
the  consequences  will  be  fatal  to  himself,  and  consents  to  withdraw  his 
army  with  the  sad  words,  "  Mother,  thou  hast  saved  Rome, — but  lost 
thy  son ! "  Equally  sublime  is  the  self-devotion  of  Codrus,  the  last 
Athenian  king.  Informed  by  the  oracle,  that,  in  a  battle  which  was 
about  to  take  place,  Athens  or  her  king  must  perish,  he  rushed  into  the 
thickest  of  the  fight,  and  by  the  sacrifice  of  himself  saved,  as  he  thought, 
his  country. 

III.  Self-possession  and  fearlessness  in  circumstances  of 
danger. 

Of  such  elevated  emotion,  an  incident  in  the  career  of  CjEsar  affords 
a  striking  illustration.  Crossing,  on  one  occasion,  a  branch  of  the  sea, 
he  was  overtaken  by  a  tempest  of  such  violence  that  the  pilot  declared 
himself  unable  to  proceed,  and  was  in  the  act  of  turning  back.  "  Quid 
times?  Ccesarem  vehis!''^  "What  do  you  fear?  You  carry  Cajsar!" 
was  the  sublime  reply.  We  have  another  example  of  heroism  in  Mu- 
cins Sca?vola,  thrusting  his  arm  into  Porsenna's  camp-fire,  to  show  how 
he  scorned  his  threatened  tortures,  and  keeping  it  there  with  unmoved 
countenance  till  it  was  entirely  consumed.  More  than  this,  we  see  the 
effect  produced  by  the  act ;  for  Porsenna  was  so  struck  with  it  that  he 
gave  the  youth,  who  had  come  to  murder  him,  his  life,  and  subsequently 
negotiated  a  peace  with  Rome. 

IV.  Exalted  patriotism. 

Wolfe's   death-scene   embodies   the   height   of  the  moral   sublime. 

What  instance  is  cited  from  Roman  history  ?  What,  from  the  early  history  of 
Athens  ?  What  is  the  third  source  of  moral  sublimity  ?  Exemplify  it  with  inci- 
dents drawn  from  the  career  of  Cwsar  and  that  of  Mucins  Scasvola.    What  is  th« 


206  THE  SUBLIME  IN   WRITING. 

Wounded  on  the  Plains  of  Abraham,  in  the  very  death-agony,  he  heard 
the  distant  shout,  "  They  fly  !  they  fly ! "—"  Who  fly  ?  "  eagerly  asked 
the  dying  hero. — "  The  enemy,"  replied  one  of  his  oflScers. — "  Then," 
said  he,  "  I  die  happy !  "  and  expired.  Another  notable  instance,  quoted 
by  all  French  critics,  occurs  in  one  of  Comeille's  tragedies.  In  the 
famous  combat  between  the  Horatii  and  the  Curiatii,  the  old  Iloratius, 
being  informed  that  two  of  his  sons  are  slain,  and  that  the  third  has  be- 
taken himself  to  flight,  at  first  will  not  believe  the  report ;  but,  being 
thoroughly  assured  of  the  fact,  he  is  filled  with  grief  and  indignation  at 
this  supposed  unworthy  behavior  of  his  surviving  son.  lie  is  reminded 
that  his  son  stood  alone  against  three,  and  is  asked  what  he  wished  that 
he  had  done.    "  That  he  had  died ! "  ( Qu'il  mourut  / )  is  the  reply. 


LESSON   XLI. 

THE  SUBLIME  IN  WRITING   (CONTINUED). 

§  276.  To  give  effect  to  the  description  of  a  sublime  ob- 
ject, a  clear,  strong,  concise,  and  simple,  style,  must  be  em- 
l^loyed. 

These  different  qualities  of  style  will  be  treated  of  hereafter ;  their 
general  character  is  sufficiently  understood  for  our  present  purpose. 
Everything  must  be  painted  in  such  terms  as  to  leave  no  room  for  mis- 
.apprehension.  To  insure  strength,  such  circumstances  must  be  selected 
for  the  description  as  exhibit  the  object  in  a  striking  point  of  view.  It 
is  plain  that  things  present  different  appearances  to  us  according  to  the 
side  we  look  upon  ;  and  that,  when  there  are  a  variety  of  circumstances, 
our  descriptions  will  vary  in  character  according  to  those  we  select.  In 
this  selection  lie  the  great  art  of  the  composer  and  the  difficulty  of 
sublime  writing.  If  the  description  is  too  general,  and  barren  of  circum- 
stances, we  can  not  present  a  forcible  picture ;  while,  if  any  trivial  or 
commonplace  circumstance  is  introduced,  the  whole  is  degraded.     Thus, 

fourth  source  of  moral  eublimity?  Illustrate  this  with  an  account  of  Wolfe's 
dcath-sccnc.  Wliat  notable  instance  of  exalted  patriotisiQ  occurs  in  one  of  Cor- 
noiUe's  tragedies  ? 

§  276.  To  give  effect  to  the  description  of  a  sublime  object,  what  kind  of  a 
style  must  be  employed?  How  must  every  thing  be  painted?  To  insure 
ptrcngth,  what  circumstances  must  be  selected  for  the  description  ?  In  what  lies 
the  great  art  of  subiimo  writing  ?  If  the  description  is  too  general,  what  follows? 


THE   SUBLIME   IN  WEITING.  207 

if  a  storm  is  the  subject,  something  else  is  necessary  than  to  say  that 
torrents  of  rain  pour  down,  and  trees  and  houses  are  overthrown.  We 
must  seize  on  the  more  striking  phenomena  with  which  it  is  attended, 
and  dwell  only  on  its  grander  effects. 

§  277.  Conciseness  is  one  of  the  most  important  essen- 
tials of  sublimity  in  writing.  The  greatest  thoughts  must 
be  presented  in  the  fewest  words.  If  the  specimens  in  the 
last  lesson,  particularly  those  from  Homer  and  Ossian,  are 
examined,  it  will  be  seen  that  this  is  their  leading  feature ; 
no  words  are  introduced  unless  essential  to  the  idea. 

"  I  love  God  and  little  children,"  says  the  German  philosopher  Rich- 
ter.  In  what  more  elevated  terms  could  he  have  expressed  his  love  for 
sinlessness  and  innocence  ?  The  sentence  is  grand,  because  so  strikingly 
condensed.  The  same  conciseness  constitutes  the  sublimity  of  Caesar's 
famous  Veni,  vidi,  vici,  in  which  he  announced  to  the  Senate  the  result 
of  one  of  his  battles ;  a  saying  which  loses  just  half  its  terse  energy, 
when  translated  into  English,  "  I  came,  I  saAv,  I  conquered." 

In  the  sentence  before  quoted,  ^^  Quid  times  i  Ccesarem  vehis,^^  the 
effect  is  also  due,  in  a  measure,  to  the  sententiousness  of  the  style.  It  is 
readily  seen  how  much  is  gained  by  conciseness,  when  we  compare  with 
these  brief  and  eloquent  words  of  the  fearless  conqueror,  Lucan's  account 
of  the  scene,  in  which,  by  attempting  to  amplify  and  adorn  the  thought, 
he  has  diluted  it  into  insignificance : — 

"  But  Cffisar,  still  superior  to  distress, 
Fearless  and  confident  of  sure  success, 
Thus  to  the  pilot  loud :— '  The  seas  despise, 
And  the  vain  threatening  of  the  noisy  skies ; 
Though  gods  deny  thee  yon  Ausonian  strand, 
Yet  go,  I  charge  you ;  go,  at  my  command. 
Thy  ignorance  alone  can  cause  thy  fears. 
Thou  know'st  not  what  a  freight  thy  vessel  bears ; 
Thou  know' St  not  I  am  he  to  whom  'tis  given 
Never  to  want  the  care  of  watchful  Heaven. 
Obedient  fortune  waits  my  humble  thrall. 
And,  always  ready,  comes  before  I  call. 
Let  wmds  and  seas  loud  wars  at  freedom  wage, 
And  waste  upon  themselves  their  empty  rage  ! 


What,  if  a  trivial  circumstance  is  introduced?    If  a  storm  is  the  Bubject,  what 
must  be  seized  on,  and  what  left  untouched  ? 

§277.  What  qiaality  of  style  is  particularly  conducive  to  sublimity?  What 
must  be  the  character  of  the  thoughts,  and  what  of  the  words  ?  What  will  bo 
found,  on  examining  the  specimens  in  the  last  lesson  ?  Give  a  sentence  from 
Richter,  which  is  sublime  by  reason  of  its  conciseness.  Give  one  from  Csesar. 
When  translated  into  English,  how  does  this  sentence  compare  in  sublimity  with 


i^08  Til  13  StULEME  IK   WRIllNG. 

A  stronger,  mightier,  demon  is  thy  friend ; 

Thou  and  tliy  bark  on  Caesar's  fate  depend. 

Tliou  Btand'st  amazed  to  view  this  dreadful  scene. 

And  wonder'st  what  the  gods  and  fortune  mean ; 

But  artfully  their  bounties  thus  tliey  raise. 

And  from  my  danger  arrogate  new  praise  ; 

Amidst  the  fears  of  death  they  bid  me  live,' 

And  still  enhance  what  they  arc  sure  to  give."— RowE. 

§  278.  Simplicity  is  no  less  essential  to  sublimity  than 
conciseness.  The  words  employed  must  be,  not  only  few, 
but  plain.  High-flown  and  turgid  expressions  must  be 
avoided  no  less  carefully  than  mean,  low,  and  trivial  ones. 
Ornament,  however  conducive  to  beauty  of  style,  is  here  out 
of  place.  Nothing  is  more  mistaken  than  to  suppose  that 
magnificent  words,  accumulated  epithets,  and  swelling  ex- 
pressions, constitute  real  elevation. 

This  will  be  apparent  from  an  illustration.  Longinus  and  all  critics 
from  his  time  to  the  present  have  concurred  in  attributing  the  highest 
Bublimity  to  the  verse  in  Genesis  which  describes  the  creation  of  light : 
*'  And  God  said,  Let  there  be  light :  and  there  was  light."  But  exchange 
its  simplicity  for  misplaced  ornament, — "  The  sovereign  arbiter  of  nature, 
by  the  potent  energy  of  a  single  word,  commanded  light  to  exist,  and  im- 
mediately it  sprang  into  being," — and  the  sound  is  indeed  magnified,  but 
the  sentiment  is  degraded,  and  the  grandeur  is  gone. 

The  reason  why  a  deficiency  of  conciseness  or  simplicity  is  fiital  to 
the  sublime  appears  to  be  this.  The  emotion  in  question  raises  the  mind 
considerably  above  its  ordinary  tone.  A  temporary  enthusiasm  is  pro- 
duced, extremely  agreeable  while  it  lasts,  but  from  which  the  mind  is 
every  moment  in  danger  of  sinking  to  its  usual  level.  Now  when  an 
author  has  brought  us,  or  is  attempting  to  bring  us,  into  this  state  of 
elevated  rapture,  if  he  indulges  in  unnecessary  words,  if  he  stops  to  in- 
troduce glittering  ornaments,  if  he  even  throws  in  a  single  decoration 
that  is  inferior  to  the  loading  imago,  he  loses  the  critical  moment ;  the 
tension  of  the  mind  is  relaxed ;  the  emotion  is  dissipated.  The  beautiful 
may  survive ;  the  sublime  is  sacrificed. 


the  original  ?    What  other  sentence  of  Cajsar's  owes  a  portion  of  Its  sublimity  to 
conciseness  ?    How  is  this  shown  ? 

§  278.  What  besides  conciseness  is  essentinl  to  sublimity?  What  kind  of  ex- 
pressions must  b'>  avoided  ?  Illustrate  the  ditlerent  etTects  producetl  by  simple 
and  by  high-flown  language.  Explain  why  a  deficiency  of  conciecnois  or  sim- 
plicity is  total  to  the  sublime. 


THE   SUBLIME   IN   WKITIKG.  209 

§  279.  The  writer  must  not  only  be  concise  and  simple ; 
he  must  also  have  a  lively  impression  of  his  subject.  If  his 
own  enthusiasm  is  not  awakened,  he  can  not  hope  to  excite 
emotion  in  others. 

All  forced  attempts  by  which  a  winter  endeavors  to  excite  himself 
and  his  readers,  when  his  imagination  begins  to  j3ag,  have  just  the  oppo- 
site effect  from  what  is  intended.  A  poet  gains  nothing  by  labored  ap- 
peals, invocations  of  the  muses,  or  general  exclamations  concerning  the 
greatness,  terribleness,  or  majesty,  of  what  he  is  about  to  describe.  We 
find  an  example  of  such  forced  introductions  in  Addison's  description  of 
the  Battle  of  Blenheim : — 

"But,  O  my  muse  1  what  numbers  wilt  thou  find, 
To  sing  the  furious  troops  in  battle  joined  ? 
Methinks  I  hear  the  drum's  tumultuous  sound, 
The  victor's  shouts,  and  dying  groans  confound ;  "  &c. 

§  280.  When,  therefore,  an  awe-inspiring  object  is  pre- 
sented in  nature,  a  grand  creation  in  art,  an  exalted  feeling 
in  the  human  mind,  or  a  heroic  deed  in  human  action ;  then, 
if  our  own  impression  is  vivid,  and  we  exhibit  it  in  brief, 
plain,  and  simple  terms,  without  rhetorical  aids,  but  trusting 
mainly  to  the  dignity  which  the  thought  naturally  assumes, 
we  may  hope  to  attain  to  the  sublime. 

Sublimity,  by  its  very  nature,  awakens  but  a  short-lived  emotion. 
By  no  force  of  genius  can  the  mind  for  any  considerable  time  be  kept  so 
far  raised  above  its  common  tone.  Neither  are  the  abilities  of  any  hu- 
man writer  sufficient  to  furnish  a  long  continuation  of  uninterruptedly 
sublime  ideas.  The  utmost  we  can  expect  is  that  the  fire  of  imagina- 
tion should  sometimes  flash  upon  us,  like  lightning  from  heaven,  and  then 
disappear.  No  author  is  sublime  throughout,  in  the  true  sense  of  the 
word.  Yet  there  arc  some,  who,  by  the  strength  and  dignity  of  their 
conceptions,  and  the  current  of  high  ideas  that  runs  throughout  their 
compositions,  keep  their  readers'  minds  in  a  state  of  comparative  eleva- 

§  279.  What  else  must  a  writer  have,  to  write  sublimely  ?  What  is  said  of 
forced  attempts  to  excite  one's  self  and  one's  readers  ?  From  what  does  a  writer 
^ain  nothing  ?    Illustrate  this  from  Addison. 

§  280.  How,  then,  may  we  hope  to  attain  to  the  sublime  ?  What  kind  of  an 
emotion  docs  sublimity  awaken  ?  Why  can  not  the  emotion  continue  for  any 
icngth  of  time  ?  What  is  the  utmost  we  can  expect  ?  Can  any  author  hope  to  be 
sublime  throughout  ?  What  is  the  nearest  approach  to  it  1  What  writers  among 
the  ancients,  and  who  among  moderns,  are  distinguished  for  the  elevated  tone 
which  rauB  throughout  their  compositions  ? 


210  THE  SUBLIME  IN   WRITING. 

tion.   In  this  class,  Pindar,  Demosthenes,  and  Plato,  among  the  ancients, 
and  Ossian  and  Milton,  among  modems,  are  worthy  of  being  ranked. 

§  281.  An  unimproved  state  of  society  is  peculiarly 
favorable  to  the  production  of  sublime  compositions.  When 
the  mind  is  unaccustomed  to  the  ornamental,  it  is  more  apt 
to  appreciate  and  admire  the  grand.  In  the  infancy  of 
nations,  men  are  constantly  meeting  with  objects  to  them 
new  and  striking ;  the  imagination  is  kept  glowing ;  and  the 
passions  are  often  vehemently  excited.  They  think  boldly, 
and  express  their  thoughts  without  restraint.  Advances 
towards  refinement  are  conducive  to  the  development  of 
beauty  in  style,  but  signally  limit  the  sphere  of  the  subUme. 

We  find  this  theory  borne  out  by  fact.  As  a  general  thing,  the  sub- 
limest  writers  have  flourished  either  in  the  early  ages  of  the  world  or  in 
the  infancy  of  their  respective  nations.  Thus,  the  grandest  of  all  pas- 
sages arc  found  in  the  earliest  of  books,  the  Bible.  The  style  of  the  in- 
spired writers  is  characterized  by  a  sublimity  commensurate  with  the 
majesty  and  solemnity  of  their  subjects.  What  can  transcend  in  gran- 
deur the  following  descriptions  of  the  Almighty  ?  The  student  is  re- 
quested to  observe  how  they  combine  the  various  elements  mentioned 
above  as  calculated  to  elevate  the  mind  and  affect  the  imagination : — 

"  In  my  distress  I  called  upon  the  Lord,  and  cried  unto  my  God  :  He 
heard  my  voice  out  of  His  temple,  and  my  cry  came  before  Him,  even 
into  His  ears.  Then  the  earth  shook  and  trembled ;  the  foundations  also 
of  the  hills  moved  and  were  shaken,  because  He  was  wroth.  There  went 
up  a  smoke  out  of  His  nostrils,  and  fire  out  of  His  mouth  devoured ; 
coals  were  kindled  by  it.  lie  bowed  the  heavens  also,  and  came  down, 
and  darkness  was  under  His  feet.  And  He  rode  upon  a  cherub,  and  did 
Uy :  yea,  He  did  fly  upon  the  wings  of  the  wind.  He  made  darkness 
His  secret  place;  His  pavilion  round  about  Him  were  dark  waters  and 
thick  clouds  of  the  skies." — Psalm  xviii.,  0-11. 

"  Before  Him  went  the  pestilence,  and  burning  coals  went  forth  at 
His  feet.  He  stood,  and  measured  the  earth  :  Ho  beheld,  and  drove 
asunder  the  nations ;  and  the  everlasting  mountains  were  scattered,  the 
perpetual  hills  did  bow :  His  ways  are  everlasting.  The  mountains  saw 
Thee,  and  they  trembled :  the  overflowing  of  the  waters  passed  by ;  the 


§  281.  What  Btato  of  society  Ib  fevorable  to  the  sublime  ?  Explain  the  reason. 
To  what  are  advances  towards  rcfinemont  conducive?  At  what  period  do  wo 
fuul  that  the  aubllmci^t  writers  have  flourished  ?  What  book  contains  the  grand- 
est of  all  passages  ?  What  descriptions  are  peculiarly  sublime  ?  Eepcat  the  de- 
scription of  the  Almighty  firom  Psalm  xvili.     Repeat  that  from  Ilabakkuk. 


THE   SUBLIME   IN   WRITING.  211 

deep  uttered  his  voice,  and  lifted  up  his  hands  on  high." — Habakkuk, 
III.,  5,  6,  10. 

The  same  remark  holds  true  in  Greek  literature.  Ilomer,  who  was 
the  earliest,  is  also  the  most  sublime,  poet  that  has  written  in  that  lan- 
guage, his  ideas  being  grand  and  his  diction  unaffected.  We  have  already- 
seen  how  magnificently  he  describes  a  battle.  A  similar  passage,  wor- 
thy of  special  mention,  occurs  in  the  20th  book  of  the  Iliad.  It  repre- 
sents the  gods  as  taking  part  in  an  engagement  between  the  Greeks  and 
Trojans.  All  heaven  and  earth  are  in  commotion.  Jupiter  thunders 
from  on  high.  Minerva  and  Mars  gird  themselves  for  the  terrible  conflict. 
Neptune  strikes  the  earth  with  his  trident ;  the  ships,  the  cities,  and  the 
mountains,  shake ;  the  earth  trembles  to  its  centre.  Pluto  starts  from 
his  throne,  in  dread  lest  the  secrets  of  the  infernal  regions  be  laid  open  to 
the  view  of  mortals. 

After  the  magnificent  passages  quoted  from  Ossian,  it  is  hardly  ne- 
cessary to  say  that  he  is  one  of  the  most  sublime  of  writers.  He  pos- 
sesses the-  plain  and  venerable  manner  of  antiquity.  lie  deals  in  no 
supM-fluous  or  gaudy  ornaments,  but  throws  forth  his  images  with  a  rapid 
conciseness  which  appeals  powerfully  to  the  mind.  Among  poets  of  more 
poUshed  times  we  must  look  for  elaborate  graces,  exact  proportion  of 
parts,  and  skilfully  conducted  narratives.  In  the  midst  of  smiling  land- 
scapes, the  gay  and  beautiful  have  their  home ;  the  sublime  dwells  among 
the  rude  scenes  of  nature  and  society  which  Ossian  describes ;  amid  rocki 
and  torrents,  whirlpools  and  battles. 


LESSON   XLII. 

THE   SUBLIME   IN  WRITING    (CONTINUED). 

§  282.  Rhyme,  which  generally  forms  a  feature  of  Eng- 
lish verse,  is  unfavorable  to  sublimity  in  writing,  by  reason 
of  its  constrained  elegance,  its  studied  smoothness,  and  the 

Wherein  consiBts  tlie  sublimity  of  these  passages  ?  Who  is  the  sublimest  of 
Greek  poets  ?  Give  the  siihstance  of  a  fine  passage  in  the  20th  book  of  the  Iliad. 
What  is  said  of  Ossian  ?  Describe  his  style.  Where  must  we  look  for  the  elabo- 
rate graces  of  writing  ?    Where,  for  the  sublime  ? 

§  283.    What  is  the  effect  of  rhyme  as  regards  sublimity  ?    How  does  it  pro 


212  THE   SUBLIME   IN    WRITING. 

superfluous  words  often  brought  in  to  produce  a  recurrence 
of  tlie  same  sound. 

Homer's  description  of  the  nod  of  Jupiter  has  been  admired  in  all 
ages  as  a  model  of  elevated  thought : — "  He  spoke,  and,  bending  his 
sable  brows,  gave  the  awful  nod ;  while  he  shook  the  celestial  locks  of 
his  immortal  head,  all  Olympus  was  shaken."  Pope  translates  this  pas- 
sage into  English  verse,  with  a  decided  loss  of  sublime  effect.  It  will  be 
seen  that  he  enlarges  on  the  thought  and  attempts  to  beautify  it ;  but 
the  result  is  that  he  only  weakens  it.  The  third  line  is  entirely  exple- 
tive, being  introduced  for  no  other  reason  than  to  furnish  a  rhyme  for 
the  preceding  one  : — 

"  He  spoke :  and  awful  bends  his  sable  brows, 

Shakes  his  ambrosial  curls,  and  gives  the  nod, 

The  stamp  of  fate,  and  sanction  of  a  god. 

High  heaven  with  trembling  the  dread  signal  took, 

And  all  Olympus  to  its  centre  shook." 

§  283.  The  freedom  and  variety  of  our  blank  verse  render 
it  a  decidedly  better  medium  than  rhyme  for  the  expression 
of  sublime  ideas.  Hence  it  is  much  to  be  preferred  for  epic 
poetry.  Milton  has  availed  himself  of  this  fact.  The 
images  he  successively  presents  in  Paradise  Lost  are  unsur- 
passed for  grandeur.  Take,  for  instance,  the  description  of 
Satan  after  his  fall,  at  the  head  of  the  infernal  hosts : — 

"  lie,  above  the  rest, 
In  shape  and  gesture  proudly  eminent, 
Stood  like  a  tower ;  his  form  had  not  yet  lost 
All  her  original  brightness,  nor  appeared 
Less  than  archangel  ruined ;  and  the  excess 
Of  glory  obscured :  as  when  the  sun,  new  risen. 
Looks  through  the  horizontal  misty  air. 
Shorn  of  his  beams  ;  or,  from  behind  the  moon, 
In  dim  eclipse,  disastrous  twilight  sheds 
On  half  the  nations,  and  with  foar  of  change 
Pen^lexes  monairhs.    Darkened  so,  yet  shone 
Above  them  all  the  archangel'' 

This  passage  is  justly  eulogized  by  Blair.    "  Here,"  he  says,  "  concur 


duce  this  effect?  Repent  Homer's  description  of  the  nod  of  Jupiter,  as  litcmlly 
tmnslated.  Repeat  Pope's  translation  of  the  same.  How  docs  It  compare  with 
the  literal  version  ?    Explain  tl50  reason. 

§  2a3.  What  kind  of  verse  is  preferable  to  rhyme  for  the  expression  of  sublime 
ideas?  Hence,  for  what  should  It  be  employed?  Who  has  thus  used  It  with 
groat  success  ?  What  Is  said  of  the  images  successively  presented  In  Paradise 
Lost  ?  Repeat  Milton's  description  of  Satan  aRcr  his  fall.  What  docs  Blair  say 
About  this  passage  f 


THE   SUBLIME   IN   WEITING.  213 

a  variety  of  sources  of  the  sublime:  the  principal  object  eminently 
great ;  a  high  superior  nature,  fallen  indeed,  but  erecting  itself  against 
distress  ;  the  grandeur  of  the  principal  object  heightened,  by  associating 
it  with  so  noble  an  idea  as  that  of  the  sun  suffering  an  eclipse ;  this  pic- 
ture, shaded  with  all  those  images  of  change  and  trouble,  of  darkness 
and  terror,  which  coincide  so  finely  with  the  sublime  emotion ;  and  the 
whole  expressed  in  a  style  and  versification,  easy,  natural,  and  simple, 
but  magnificent." 

§  284  Those  who  aim  at  the  sublime  are  liable  to  fall 
into  two  faults, — frigidity  and  bombast. 

§  285.  Frigidity  consists  in  degrading  an  object  or  sen- 
timent which  is  sublime  in  itself,  by  our  mean  conception  of 
it,  or  by  a  weak,  low,  and  childish  description.  No  fault  is 
more  to  be  avoided. 

As  a  forcible  example  of  frigidity,  we  quote  a  passage  from  a  poem 
of  Sir  Richard  Blackmoor's,  descriptive  of  an  eruption  of  Etna ;  in 
which,  as  humorously  observed  by  Dr.  Arbuthnot,  he  represents  the 
mountain  in  a  fit  of  colic  : — 

"  Etna,  and  all  the  burning  mountains,  find 
Their  kindled  etores  with  inbred  storms  of  wind 
Blown  up  to  rage,  and  roaring  o.ut  complain. 
As  torn  with  inward  gripes,  and  torturing  pain  ; 
Laboring,  they  cast  their  dreadful  vomit  round. 
And  with  their  melted  bowels  spread  the  ground." 

So  Ben  Jonson,  in  a  battle-scene,  rather  injudiciously  caps  the  climax 
of  his  would-be  sublimity  by  representing  the  sun  in  a  perspiration : — 

"  The  sun  stood  still,  and  was,  behind  the  cloud 
The  battle  made,  seen  sweating  to  drive  up 
His  frighted  horse,  whom  still  the  noise  drove  backward." 

Catiline,  Act  V. 

§  286.  Bombast  consists  in  attempting  to  raise  an  ordi- 
nary or  trivial  object  above  its  level,  and  to  endow  it  with 
a  sublimity  it  does  not  possess.  Such  attempts  illustrate 
the  old  saying  that  there  is  but  a  step  from  the  sublime  to 


§  284.  Into  what  foults  are  those  who  aim  at  the  sublime  liable  to  fall  ? 

§  285.  In  what  does  frigidity  consist  ?  Quote  a  passage  from  Blackmoor,  illus- 
trative of  this  fault.  Point  out  wherein  the  frigidity  lies.  Wliat  lias  been  hu- 
morously observed  respecting  these  lines  ?  How  does  Ben  Jonson  represent 
the  Bun  in  a  battle-scene  ?    Of  what  fault  is  he  therein  guilty  ? 

%  386.  In  what  does  bombast  consist?    What  is  the  mind  prone  to  do  ?    Into 


214  THE  BEAUTIFUL. 

the  ridiculous.  When  under  the  control  of  violent  passions, 
the  mind,  it  is  true,  is  prone  to  magnify  the  objects  of  its 
conceptions  beyond  their  natural  bounds ;  but  such  h^-per- 
bolical  description  has  its  limits,  and,  when  carried  too  far, 
degenerates  into  the  burlesque.  Ben  Jonson,  Blackmoor, 
and  Dryden,  have  fallen  into  this  fault : — 

"  Great  and  high 
The  world  knows  only  two,  that's  Rome  and  I. 
My  roof  receives  me  not ;  'tis  air  I  tread, 
And  at  each  step  I  feel  my  advanced  head 
Knock  out  a  star  in  heaven." 

Ben  Jonson.    Sejantu,  Act.  V. 

"  Give  way,  and  let  the  gushing  torrent  come ; 
Behold  the  tears  we  bring  to  swell  the  deluge, 
Till  the  flood  rise  upon  the  guilty  world, 
And  make  the  ruin  common." 

Ben  Johnson.    Ladj/  Jane  Orey^  Act  IV. 

"To  see  this  fleet  upon  the  ocean  move, 

Angels  drew  wide  the  curtains  of  the  skies ; 
And  heaven,  as  if  there  wanted  lights  above, 
For  tapers  made  two  glaring  comets  rise." 

Dbyden. 


LESSON   XLII 

THE  BEAUTIFUL. 

§  287.  Beauty  does  not  afford  the  imagination  so  high 
a  degree  of  pleasure  as  sublimity;  but,  characterizing  a 
greater  variety  of  objects  than  the  latter  quality,  it  is  a  more 
fruitful  source  of  gratification  to  that  faculty.  The  emotion 
it  awakens  is  easily  distinguishable  from  that  of  grandeur. 
It  is  calmer  and  more  gentle,  and  is  calculated,  not  so  much 
to  elevate  the  mind,  as  to  produce  in  it  an  agreeable  seren- 
ity. Sublimity  raises  a  feeling  too  violent  to  be  lasting;  the 
pleasure  arising  from  beauty  admits  of  longer  continuance. 

what  does  hyperbolical  description  degenerate  ?    What  writers  have  fallen  into 
this  fault  ?    Give  examples,  and  show  wherein  the  bombast  lies. 

S  2S7.  Which  aflfords  the  higher  degree  of  pleasure,  beauty  or  sublimity  ? 


THE   BEArTIFUL.  215 

Few  words  in  the  language  are  applicable  to  as  wide  a  range  of  ob- 
jects as  beauty.  It  is  used  in  connection  with  whatever  pleases  the  eye 
or  ear ;  with  many  of  the  graces  of  writing ;  and  even  with  the  abstract 
terms  of  science.  We  speak  of  a  beautiful  tree  or  flower ;  a  beautiful 
poem ;  a  beautiful  character ;  and  a  beautiful  theorem  in  mathematics. 

§  288.  Frequent  attempts  have  been  made  to  discover 
in  what  the  beautiful  consists ;  what  quality  it  is,  which  all 
beautiful  objects  possess,  and  which  is  the  foundation  of  the 
agreeable  sensations  they  produce.  Yet  no  theory  has  been 
advanced  on  this  subject  which  is  not  open  to  objection ; 
and  it  would,  therefore,  seem  as  if  the  various  objects  so  de- 
nominated are  beautiful,  by  virtue,  not  of  any  one  principle 
common  to  them  all,  but  of  several  different  qualities.  The 
same  agreeable  emotion  is  produced  by  them  all,  and  they 
are  therefore  designated  by  the  common  appellation  beau- 
tiful;  but  this  emotion  seems  to  spring  from  sources  radi- 
cally different. 

Of  the  theories  here  alluded  to,  several  are  worthy  of  mention.  The 
principle  of  the  beautiful  has  been  made  to  consist  in, 

I.  Agreeahleness.  Experience,  however,  which  is  the  great  test  of 
theory,  proves  this  hypothesis  false.  All  agreeable  things  are  not  beau, 
tiful ;  nor  do  those  which  have  the  one  quality  in  the  highest  degree 
possess  the  other  in  proportion.  We  never  speak  of  a  beautiful  taste  or 
a  beautiful  smell ;  but  would  certainly  do  so,  if  the  beautiful  and  the 
agreeable  were  synonymous.  As  long  as  they  can  be  separated  and  are 
not  commensurate  with  each  other,  they  can  not  be  identical. 

II.  Utility.  Here  again,  applying  the  test  of  experience,  we  find  the 
theory  does  not  hold  good.  A  three-legged  stool  may  be  very  useful, 
yet  is  far  from  being  generally  regarded  as  beautiful. 

III.  Unity  and  variety.  This  has  been  a  favorite  theory,  and  makes 
beauty  to  consist  in  a  variety  of  contrasting  features  so  combined  that 

Which  is  the  more  fraitftil  source  of  gratification  ?  Why?  Show  the  diflference  in 
the  emotions  they  respectively  produce.   To  what  is  the  term  beauty  applicable  ? 

§  288.  What  attempts  have  been  made  by  dififerent  writers  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  various  theories  advanced?  What  would  seem  to  follow,  with  respect  to 
the  source  of  the  beautiftxl  ? 

In  what  does  the  first  theoiy  mentioned  make  the  beautiful  to  consist  ?  What 
is  the  great  test  of  theory?  What  does  experience  prove  with  respect  to  this 
hypothesis?  Show  how  this  is  proved.  According  to  the  second  theory,  in 
what  does  beauty  consist  ?  Show  how  this  hypothesis  does  not  always  hold  good. 


216  THE  BEAUTIFUL. 

unity  of  design  characterizes  the  whole.  Thus,  in  a  beautiful  flower, 
there  is  a  unity  of  proportion  and  symmetry,  and  at  the  same  time  a  di- 
versity in  the  size  and  tints  of  the  leaves.  Even  in  mathematics,  what  is 
beautiful  is  not  merely  an  abstract  principle ;  it  is  a  great  truth,  carrying 
■with  it  a  long  train  of  consequences.  Yet  it  is  objected,  and  with  jus- 
tice, that  many  things  please  us  as  beautiful  in  which  we  are  unable  to 
detect  any  variety  at  all ;  and  others,  again,  in  which  variety  is  carried 
to  such  a  degree  of  intricacy  as  to  preclude  the  idea  of  unity. 

As,  therefore,  we  can  discover  no  common  and  universal  source  of 
beauty,  we  shall  next  consider  the  different  qualities  from  which  it  pro- 
ceeds in  individual  cases. 

§  289.  Color  is  one  of  the  chief  elements  of  beauty ; 
though  why  it  is  so  we  can  explain  no  further  than  by  say- 
ing, that  the  structure  of  the  eye  is  such  as  to  receive  more 
pleasure  from  some  modifications  of  tlie  rays  of  light  than 
others.  This  organ,  moreover,  is  so  variously  constituted, 
that  a  color  which  is  agreeable  to  one  may  excite  no  special 
admiration  in  another.  Still,  we  find  there  are  some  pecu- 
liarities belonging  to  colors,  which,  in  the  estimation  of  all, 
enhance  their  beauty. 

I.  They  must  not  be  dusky  or  muddy,  but  clear  and  fair. 

II.  They  must  be  delicate  rather  than  strong.  Light  straw- 
color  and  mellow  pink  are  generally  considered  more 
beautiful  than  deep  and  dazzling  yellow  and  red. 

III.  If  the  colors  are  strong  and  vivad,  they  must  be  mingled 
and  contrasted  with  each  other,  the  strength  and  glare 
of  each  being  thus  abated.  This  constitutes  the  charm 
of  variegated  flowers. 

These  various  traits  are  found  to  characterize  the  beautiful  colors 
which  nature  everywhere  employs  to  render  her  works  attractive,  and 
which  art  finds  it  extremely  difficult  to  imitate.  They  will  be  recognized 
in  the  blending  shades  with  which  she  paints  the  feathers  of  birds,  the 


What  has  been  a  favorite  theory  with  many  ?    Exemplify  it.    What  objection  is 
justly  made  to  it  ?    What,  therefore,  are  we  unable  to  discover  V 

§  289.  What  is  one  of  the  chief  elements  of  beauty  ?  How  far  are  we  able  to 
explain  this  ?  What  three  peculiaritice,  in  the  general  estimation,  enhance  the 
beauty  of  colors  ?    In  what  natural  objects  do  these  peculiarities  characterizo 


THE  BEAUTIFUL.  217 

complexion  of  blooming  youth,  the  floral  creation,  and  the  sunset  sky. 
As  in  sounds,  so  in  the  case  of  colors,  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  asso- 
ciation of  ideas  often  contributes  to  the  pleasure  received.  Green,  for 
instance,  may  appear  more  beautiful  from  being  connected  in  our  minds 
with  rural  scenes ;  white,  from  its  being  the  type  of  innocence ;  and 
blue,  from  its  association  with  the  serenity  of  the  sky. 

§  290.  Figure. — Regular  figures,  or  such  as  we  perceive 
to  be  formed  according  to  fixed  principles,  are,  as  a  general 
rule,  beautiful.  Such  is  the  character  of  circles,  squares, 
triangles,  and  ellipses.  The  mind  unconsciously  connects 
with  well-proportioned  forms  the  idea  of  practical  adap- 
tation to  some  useful  end.  Regularity,  however,  does  not 
involve  the  idea  of  sameness,  which  would  tire  and  disgust 
the  eye ;  on  the  contrary,  variety  is  generally  united  wdth  it 
in  the  most  attractive  works  of  nature. 

Gradual  variation  in  the  parts  uniting  to  form  a  whole  seems  to  be 
one  of  the  commonest  sources  of  natural  beauty.  There  is  generally  a 
constant  change  of  direction  in  the  outline  ;  but  it  is  so  gradual  that  we 
find  it  difficult  to  determine  its  beginning  or  end.  Thus,  in  the  form  of 
a  dove,  the  head  increases  insensibly  to  the  middle,  whence  it  lessens 
gradually  until  it  becomes  blended  with  the  neck.  The  neck  loses  itself 
in  a  larger  swell,  which  continues  to  the  middle  of  the  body,  whence 
there  is  a  corresponding  duninution  towards  the  tail.  The  tail  takes  a 
new  direction ;  but  soon,  varying  its  course,  blends  with  the  parts  below : 
and  thus  the  outline  is  constantly  changing. 

Curves  change  their  direction  at  every  point,  and  hence  afford  the 
commonest  instances  of  gradual  variation.  Circular  figures,  therefore, 
are  generally  more  beautiful  than  those  bounded  by  straight  lines.  This 
is  a  theory  of  Hogarth's,  Avho  makes  beauty  of  figure  consist  chiefly  in 
the  preponderance  of  two  curves,  which  he  calls  the  line  of  beauty  and 
the  line  of  grace.  The  former  is  a  waving  line,  inclining  alternately 
backwards  and  forwards,  something  like  the  letter  m  .     It  is  constantly 

color  ?  As  in  the  case  of  sounds,  what  often  contributes  to  the  pleasure  received 
from  colors  ?    Exemplify  this  in  the  case  of  green,  white,  and  blue. 

§  2(K).  What  figures,  as  a  general  rule,  are  beautiful  ?  What  idea  does  the  mind 
connect  with  well-proportioned  forms  ?  What  does  regularity  not  involve  ?  On 
the  contrary,  in  the  works  of  nature,  what  is  generally  united  with  it  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  outline  of  the  most  attractive  natural  objects  ?  Illustrate  this  in  the 
case  of  the  dove.  What  figures  are  the  most  beautiful  ?  Why  ?  In  what  does 
Hogarth  make  beauty  consist  ?  Describe  his  line  of  beauty.  In  what  does  it 
constantly  occur  ?  Describe  Hogarth's  line  of  grace.  In  what  is  it  exhibited  ? 
10 


218  THE  BEAUTIFUL. 

occurring  in  shells,  flowers,  and  other  ornamental  works  of  nature,  and 
enters  largely  into  the  decorations  employed  by  painters  and  sculptors. 
This  curve  twisted  round  a  solid  body,  or  having  the  same  appearance 
as  if  it  had  been  so  twisted,  constitutes  the  line  of  grace.  The  latter  is 
exhibited  familiarly  in  the  cork-screw  ;  also,  in  a  winding  stair-case,  anc' 
a  lady's  ringlet  loosely  curled. 

§  291.  Smoothness.  —  Smoothness  is  another  qualit}? 
essential  to  beauty.  We  receive  pleasure  from  contemplat- 
ing the  smooth  leaves  of  flowers,  smooth  slopes  of  earth, 
smooth  streams  in  a  landscape,  smooth  coats  in  birds  and 
beasts,  smooth  skins  in  our  own  species,  and  smooth  and 
polished  surfaces  in  furniture.  Give  any  beautiful  object  a 
broken  and  rugged  surface ;  and,  however  well  it  may  be 
formed  in  other  respects,  it  pleases  no  longer. 

Smoothness  appeals,  not  only  to  the  sight,  but  also  to  the  touch. 
The  slightness  of  the  resistance  made  to  that  part  of  the  body  with  which 
a  smooth  surface  comes  in  contact,  produces  a  pleasing  emotion,  though 
one  of  inferior  degree. 

§  292.  Motion. — Other  things  being  equal,  bodies  in 
motion  are  more  attractive  than  those  at  rest;  and  such  as 
move  in  undulating  lines  please  us  in  a  higher  degree  than 
those  that  undeviatingly  pursue  the  same  direction.  This 
fact  is  readily  accounted  for  by  Hogarth's  principle.  Up- 
ward motion,  moreover,  afibrds  greater  pleasure  than  that 
in  the  opposite  direction.  This,  together  with  its  waving 
character,  constitutes  the  beauty  of  curling  smoke ;  a  feature 
which  painters  are  fond  of  introducing  into  their  landscapes. 

Motion  is  an  element  of  beauty,  only  when  gentle  in  its  character. 
When  very  swift  or  forcible,  it  becomes  sublime.  The  motion  of  a  binl 
gliding  through  the  air,  or  of  a  placid  brook,  is  beautiful ;  that  of  the 
lightning  as  it  darts  from  heaven,  or  a  mighty  river  chafing  against  its 
banks,  partakes  rather  of  sublimity. 

§  291.  What  other  quality  is  essential  to  beauty  ?  In  what  natural  objects  U 
it  found  ?  What  results  from  giving  any  beautiful  object  a  rugged  surface  ?  To 
what  sense  besides  sight  docs  smoothness  appeal  ?  Show  how  it  produces  n 
pleasing  emotion  through  tlio  touch. 

§  292.  What  imparts  an  additional  attraction  to  bodies  ?  Wliat  kind  of  motion 
is  the  most  beautiftil?  What  feature  are  painters  fond  of  introducing  into  land- 
Bcapes  ?  In  what  does  its  beauty  consist  ?  In  what  case  docs  motion  coutributa 
to  BUbllrolty  rather  than  beauty  ? 


THE  BEAUTIFUL.  219 

§293.  Smallkess  aot)  Delicacy. — As  vastness  and 
strength  are  elements  of  the  sublime,  so  smallness  and  deli- 
cacy belong  to  the  beautiful.  The  former  qualities  excite 
our  astonishment  and  admiration  ;  the  latter,  our  sjnnpathy 
and  love.  Whatever  we  are  fond  of  is  associated  in  our 
minds  with  the  idea  of  smallness.  Hence  the  diminutives 
used  in  every  language  to  express  affection  and  tenderness. 
So,  an  air  of  robustness  and  strength,  however  conducive 
to  the  sublime,  is  incompatible  with  the  beautiful.  To  the 
latter  an  appearance  of  delicacy  is  essential,  which  may  even 
be  carried  to  the  borders  of  fragility. 

It  is  not  the  immense  and  mighty  oak  of  the  forest  that  we  consider 
beautiful ;  but  the  delicate  myrtle,  the  fragile  violet,  the  modest  forget- 
me-not.  For  the  same  reason  we  are  more  pleased  with  the  slender 
greyhound  than  the  burly  mastiff,  and  with  the  slight  Arabian  courser 
than  the  stout  carriage-horse.  To  these  qualities,  too,  much  of  woman's 
beauty  is  attributable. 

§  294.  Design. — Another  source  of  beauty  is  found  in 
design,  as  evidenced  in  the  skilful  combination  of  parts  in  a 
whole,  or  the  adaptation  of  means  to  an  end.  So  largely 
does  this  enter  into  the  beautiful,  that  some  have  considered 
it  the  leading  principle  of  the  latter.  This  causes  our  pleas- 
ure when  we  contemplate  the  wonderful  structm-e  of  the 
hand,  and  see  with  what  nicety  its  many  parts  are  adjusted, 
to  form  a  member  unequalled  in  strength,  flexibility,  and 
usefulness. 

The  pleasure  arising  from  the  sense  of  design  is  entirely  distinct 
from  that  produced  by  the  various  qualities  described  above.  Thus,  in 
a  watch,  we  recognize  beauty  in  the  exterior,  by  reason  either  of  the 
color,  polish,  smoothness,  or  regularity  of  shape ;  but  the  pleasure  pro- 
duced by  an  examination  of  the  internal  machinery  arises  entirely  from 

§  293.  As  regards  size,  what  is  essential  to  the  beautiful  ?  What  feelings  are 
excited  by  vastness  and  strength  ?  What,  by  smallness  and  delicacy  ?  What  idea 
do  we  associate  with  beloved  objects  ?  What  are  diminutives  in  every  language 
used  to  express  ?  What  effect  has  an  air  of  robustness  and  strength  ?  Illustrate 
this.    To  what  is  much  of  woman's  beauty  attributable  ? 

§  294.  In  what  is  another  source  of  beauty  found  ?  What  causes  our  pleasure 
when  we  contemplate  the  wonderful  structure  of  the  hand  ?  In  the  case  of  a 
watch,  Bhow  how  distinct  emotions  of  pleasure  are  produced  by  the  befo re-men- 


220  THE  BEAUTIFUL. 

our  consciousness  of  design,  our  appreciation  of  the  admirable  skill  with 
which  so  many  complicated  pieces  are  united  for  one  useful  purpose. 

This  element  has  an  influence  in  the  formation  of  many  of  our  opin- 
ions. It  is  the  foundation  of  the  beauty  which  we  discern  in  the  pro- 
portions of  doors,  arches,  pillars,  and  the  hke.  However  fine  the  orna- 
ments of  a  building  may  be,  they  lose  most  of  their  attractions,  unless, 
either  in  appearance  or  reality,  they  conduce  to  some  useful  end. 

This  principle  should  be  constantly  borne  in  mind  by  the  composer. 
In  a  poem,  a  history,  an  oration,  or  any  other  literary  work,  unity  of  de- 
sign  and  an  adjustment  of  the  parts  in  one  symmetrical  whole,  are  as 
essential  to  effect  as  in  architecture  and  other  arts.  The  finest  descrip- 
tions and  most  elegant  figures  lose  all  their  beauty,  or  rather  become 
actual  deformities,  unless  connected  with  the  subject,  and  consistent 
with  the  leading  design  of  the  writer.  Let  the  object  proposed  be  con- 
stantly kept  in  view,  and  nothing  foreign  to  it,  however  beautiful  in  it- 
self, be  introduced  to  distract  the  attention. 

§  295.  Such  are  some  of  the  leading  elements  of  beauty, 
possessed,  in  different  measures,  by  the  various  creations  of 
nature  and  art.  Some  objects  combine  them  all,  and  there- 
by become  attractive  in  the  highest  degree.  Thus,  in  flow- 
ers and  birds,  we  are  entertained  at  once  with  color,  regu- 
larity of  form,  unity  in  variety,  smoothness,  delicacy,  and, 
at  times,  motion.  Different  sensations  are  produced  by  each 
of  these  qualities ;  yet  they  blend  in  one  general  perception 
of  beauty. 

The  most  beautiful  object  that  nature  presents  is  a  landscape,  which 
combines,  in  rich  variety,  luxuriant  fields,  picturesque  trees,  running 
water,  birds  skimming  the  air,  animals  moving  in  the  pasture,  and  hu- 
man figures  as  the  climax  of  the  whole.  The  chaiins  of  the  pictui-e  are 
enhanced  by  the  judicious  introduction  of  the  creations  of  art, — an  arch- 
ing bridge,  a  moss-covered  cottage  with  graceful  smoke  ascending  from 
tlic  chinmey,  a  busy  mill,  an  unpretending  house  of  worship.  A  taste 
capable  of  appreciating  such  scenes  is  essential  to  success  in  poetical 
description. 


tioncd  qunHtles  and  by  the  sense  of  design.  How  docs  this  clement  Influence  ua 
in  the  formation  of  our  opljilonB  ?  How  docs  this  principle  apply  to  literary  com- 
l)Ositloni»  ?    Wliat  must  be  cons»tanlly  kept  in  view  ? 

§  205.  What  objects  arc  attractive  in  the  highest  degree  ?  With  what  arc  we 
entertained  In  the  case  of  flowers  and  birds  ?  What  is  the  most  beautiful  object 
Hiat  nature  presents  ?    What  le  »e8entlal  to  eucccss  in  poetical  description  ? 


GRACEFULNESS.  221 

§  296.  There  is  a  moral  beauty,  as  well  as  a  moral  sub- 
limity. The  latter,  we  have  seen,  characterizes  great  and 
heroic  acts,  self-devotion,  fearlessness,  and  patriotism.  The 
moral  beautiful  belongs  to  the  gentler  virtues,  affability, 
generosity,  compassion,  and  the  like.  The  emotion  they  ex- 
cite resembles  that  produced  by  beautiful  external  objects. 


LESSON    XLIV. 

GRACEFULNESS. — THE  BEAUTIFUL   IN  THE   HUMAN  COUNTE- 
NANCE,  IN   SOUND,   AND   IN  WRITING. 

§  297.  Gracefulness. — In  the  effect  it  produces  on  the 
mind,  gracefulness  is  analogous  to  beauty.  This  quality  be- 
longs chiefly  to  posture  and  motion.  Grace  requires  that 
there  should  be  no  appearance  of  difficulty  ;  that  the  body 
should  not  be  kept  rigidly  erect,  but  slightly  bent,  and  that 
its  parts  should  be  so  disposed  as  neither  to  embarrass  each 
other,  nor  to  be  divided  by  sharp  and  sudden  angles.  In 
this  roundness  of  shape  and  delicacy  of  attitude,  resides  a 
chann  which  must  be  obvious  to  all  who  consider  attentively 
the  Venus  de  Medici,  the  Antinous,  or  any  great  statue. 

§  298.  The  Beautiful  in  the  Human  Countenance. 
— The  beauty  of  the  human  countenance  is  more  complicated 
than  that  belonging  to  most  natural  objects.  It  depends  at 
once  on  color,  or  complexion ;  on  figure,  or  outline  ;  and  on 
unity  of  design,  that  is,  the  adaptation  of  its  various  parts 
to  the  purposes  for  which  they  were  formed.     The  chief 

§  296.  What  is  meant  by  moral  beauty?  Wherein  consists  the  difference  be- 
tween it  and  moral  sublimity  ?  What  does  the  emotion  produced  by  the  moral 
beautiful  resemble  ? 

§  297.  What,  in  its  effect,  is  analogous  to  beauty  ?  To  what,  chiefly,  does 
gracefulness  belong  ?    What  does  it  require  ?    In  what  statues  is  it  exhibited  ? 

$  298.  How  does  the  beauty  of  the  human  countenance  compare  with  that  of 
most  natural  objects  ?    On  what  does  it  depend  ?    In  what  does  its  chief  beauty 


222  THE  BEAUTIFUL   IN   SOUND. 

beauty  of  the  countenance,  however,  lies  in  what  is  called 
its  expression,  or  the  idea  which  it  conveys  respecting  the 
qualities  of  the  mind.  If  good-humor,  intelligence,  frank- 
ness, benevolence,  or  any  other  amiable  quaUty,  is  indicated, 
the  beauty  of  the  face  is  heightened  even  more  than  by 
faultlessness  of  feature. 

It  is  difficult  to  explain  how  certain  conformations  of  feature  give  us 
the  impression  of  certain  peculiarities  of  mind  and  disposition.  Perhaps 
both  instinct  and  experience  have  a  share  in  producing  this  connection. 
Some  regard  the  relations  subsisting  between  the  two  as  exceedingly  in- 
timate. The  celebrated  physiognomist  Campanella,  who  made  extensive 
observations  on  human  faces  and  was  wonderfully  expert  in  imitating 
such  as  were  in  any  way  remarkable,  held  that  it  was  impossible  for  one 
even  temporarily  assuming  a  particular  expression,  to  avoid,  for  the 
time  his  countenance  was  so  changed,  the  mental  disposition  connected 
therewith.  When  desirous  of  becoming  acquainted  with  a  person's  feel- 
ings, he  imitated  his  expression,  his  carriage,  and  all  his  other  peculiari- 
ties of  face  and  body,  as  nearly  as  possible,  and  then  carefully  observed 
Avhat  turn  of  mind  he  seemed  to  acquire  by  the  change ;  thus,  he  claimed, 
he  could  enter  into  any  one's  thoughts  as  etFectually  as  if  he  were  con- 
verted into  the  man  himself. 

§  299.  The  Beautiful  in  Sound. — Beauty,  as  well  as 
sublimity,  extends  to  the  objects  of  liearing  equally  >vith 
those  of  sight.  It  belongs,  in  a  high  degree,  to  that  com- 
position of  different  sounds  which  we  call  Music,  the  prin- 
ciples of  wliich  are  so  various  and  complex  as  to  constitute 
an  independent  science. 

Musical  compositions  that  combine  grand  and  magnificent  sounds, 
that  are  remarkable  for  loudness,  strength,  and  quick  transitions,  prop- 
erly belong  to  the  sublime.  Most  music,  however,  is  distinguished  by 
sweetness,  and  is,  therefore,  simply  beautiful.  Milton,  in  his  L' Allegro, 
happily  describes  airs  of  this  character.    It  will  be  observed  how  per- 

lic  ?  What  heightens  the  beauty  of  the  countenance  even  more  than  fnultloesnces 
of  feature  ?  What,  perhaps,  combine  to  pive  us  pleasure  from  certain  conformations 
of  feature  ?  What  was  Campanella  ?  What  did  he  hold  with  regard  to  the  counte- 
nance ?  By  what  process  did  he  claim  that  he  could  enter  into  a  person's  thoughts  ? 
§  299.  To  what  besides  objects  of  sight  docs  beauty  extend  ?  To  what  does  it 
belong  in  a  high  degree  ?  What  mnsical  compositions  properly  belong  to  the 
sublime  ?  By  what,  however,  is  most  music  distinguished  ?  Repeat  the  lines  in 
which  Milton  describes  airs  of  this  character.  By  what  are  these  llnea  themr 
t  elves  characterized  ? 


THE  BEAUTIFUL   IN  WRITmG.  223 

fectly  the  passage  is  in  keeping  with  the  subject,  how  easy  and  flowing 
the  measure,  and  how  pleasing  the  harmony  of  the  words,  both  as  taken 
individually  and  as  combined  together.  We  should  vainly  seek  for  a 
more  striking  example  of  the  beautiful  in  writing : — 

"  And  ever,  against  eating  cares, 
Lap  me  in  soft  Lydian  airs ; 
In  notes  with  many  a  winding  bout 
Of  linked  sweetness  long  drawn  out ; 
With  wanton  head  and  giddy  cunning, 
The  melting  voice  through  mazes  running ; 
Untwisting  all  the  chains  that  tie 
The  hidden  soul  of  harmony." 

Of  simple  sounds,  those  fall  under  the  head  of  the  beau- 
tiful that  are  characterized  by  sweetness,  softness,  and  deli- 
cacy. Much  here,  also,  is  due  to  association.  The  notes  of 
beautiful  animals  are,  by  reason  of  a  connection  of  ideas, 
themselves  beautiful.  This  is  the  chief  reason  why  we  find 
so  much  to  admire  in  the  warbling  of  birds.  The  minute- 
ness and  delicacy  of  their  forms,  their  modes  of  life,  and  the 
domestic  attachments  subsisting  between  them,  render  them 
objects  of  special  interest  and  tenderness  on  the  part  of  the 
human  family ;  and  hence,  their  notes,  intuitively  connected 
in  our  minds  with  the  objects  from  which  they  proceed, 
awaken  a  strong  emotion  of  beauty. 

Superstitious  feelings  sometimes  impart  effect  to  sounds  which  would 
otherwise  be  far  from  awaking  any  special  admiration.  To  most  per- 
sons the  cry  of  the  stork  is  hardly  tolerable ;  but,  for  the  Hollander, 
with  whom  this  bird  is  the  object  of  a  popular  and  pleasing  superstition, 
it  possesses  a  singular  charm. 

Those  sounds  of  the  human  voice  are  generally  accounted  most  beau- 
tiful  which  are  low  and  grave,  and  gradually  increase  in  volume. 

§  300.  The  Beautiful  in  Writing. — ^The  term  beauty^ 
as  applied  to  writing,  is  often  used  with  but  little  definite 
meaning.     When  we  speak  of  a  beautiful  sonnet,  letter,  or 

What  simple  sounds  fall  under  the  head  of  the  beautiful  ?  To  what  is  much 
of  the  pleasure  received  from  them  due  ?  Why  do  we  admire  the  warbling  of 
birds  ?  What  feelings  sometimes  impart  effect  to  sounds  ?  How  does  the  cry  of 
the  stork  affect  most  persons  ?  How,  the  Hollander  ?  Why  ?  What  sounds  of  the 
human  voice  are  accounted  most  beautiful  ? 

§  300.  As  generally  applied  to  writing,  what  does  the  term  beauty  signify  ? 
Properly  speaking,  to  what  is  it  applied  ?   Show  how  it  differs  from  sublimity  of 


224  THE  BEAUTIFUL  ll^  WAITING. 

oration,  we  mean  simply  one  that  is  well  composed  ;  that  is 
agreeable  either  by  reason  of  the  sentiment  it  embodies,  or 
the  style  in  which  it  is  expressed.  But,  properly  speak- 
ing, this  term  has  a  more  limited  signification ;  being  ap- 
plied, not  to  what  is  impassioned,  sparkling,  vehement,  or 
elevated,  but  to  all  that  raises  in  the  reader  a  gentle,  placid 
emotion,  similar  to  that  produced  by  the  contemplation  of 
beauty  in  natural  objects. 

The  beautiful  in  writing  is  not  confined  to  descriptions  of  attractive 
external  objects,  but  extends  to  all  subjects  except  those  of  an  abstract 
or  elevated  character.  It  does  not,  like  sublimity,  exclude  ornament, 
or  require  plainness  of  words ;  nor  is  it  necessarily  confined  to  occasional 
passages.  It  may  characterize  an  author's  style  throughout.  Among 
the  ancients,  Virgil  is  as  much  distinguished  for  the  beauty  of  his  pe- 
riods as  Homer  is  for  the  sublimity  of  his  conceptions.  So,  Cicero's 
orations  have  more  of  the  beautiful  than  tlie  sublime ;  in  this  latter 
quality  they  are  surpassed  by  those  of  Demosthenes.  Among  moderns, 
Fenelon  and  Lamartine  in  French,  Addison  in  English,  and  Irving  in 
American,  literature,  possess  those  various  graces  of  composition  which 
constitute  the  beautiful. 

EXERCISE. 
As  an  example  of  the  beautiful  in  writing.  Eve's  account 
of  her  first  consciousness  of  existence  and  her  introduc- 
tion to  Adam  is  quoted  from  Milton.  Let  tlie  student  point 
out  its  successive  beauties,  and,  as  an  exercise  in  punctua- 
tion, supply  the  omitted  points  : — 

"  That  day  I  oft  remember  when  from  sleep 
I  first  awaked  and  found  myself  reposed 
Under  a  shade  on  flowers  much  wondering  where 
And  what  I  was  whence  thither  brought  and  how. 
Not  distant  far  from  thence  a  murmuring  sound 
Of  waters  issued  from  a  cave  and  spread 
Into  a  liquid  plain  then  stood  unmoved 
Pure  as  the  expanse  of  heaven  I  thither  went 
With  unexperienced  thought  and  laid  me  down 
On  the  green  bank  to  look  into  the  clear 
Smooth  lake  that  to  me  seemed  another  sky. 
As  I  bent  down  to  look  just  opposite 


Btyle.  How  do  Virgil  and  Homer  compare,  as  regards  beauty  and  sublimity? 
How,  Cicero  and  Demosthenes?  What  modem  writers  possess  those  gracce  of 
compoeition  which  constitute  the  beautiful  ? 


WIT.  226 

A.  shape  within  the  watery  gleam  appeared 
Bending  to  look  on  me.     I  started  back 
It  started  back  but  pleased  I  soon  returned 
Pleased  it  returned  as  soon  with  answering  looks 
Of  sympathy  and  love.     There  I  had  fixed 
Mine  eyes  till  now  and  pined  with  vain  desire 
Had  not  a  voice  thus  warned  me  What  thou  seest 
What  there  thou  seest  fair  creature  is  thyself 
With  thee  it  came  and  goes  but  follow  me 
And  I  will  bring  thee  where  no  shadow  stays 
Thy  coming  and  thy  soft  embraces  he 
Whose  image  thou  art.     *  * 

*  *  *        What  could  I  do 

But  follow  straight  invisibly  thus  led  ? 
Till  I  espied  thee  fair  indeed  and  tall 
Under  a  platane  yet  methought  less  fair 
Less  winning  soft  less  amiably  mild 
Than  that  smooth  watery  image.     Back  I  turned 
Thou  following  criedst  aloud  Return  fair  Eve 
Whom  fliest  thou  ?     Whom  thou  fliest  of  him  thou  art 
His  flesh  his  bone  to  give  thee  being  I  lent 
Out  of  my  side  to  thee  nearest  my  heart 
Substantial  life  to  have  thee  by  my  side 
Henceforth  an  individual  solace  dear. 
Part  of  my  soul  I  seek  thee  and  thee  claim 
My  other  half.     With  that  thy  gentle  hand 
Seized  mine  I  yielded." 


LESSON     XLV. 

WIT. 

§  301.  Sublimity  and  beauty  are  not  the  only  sources 
of  the  pleasure  derived  from  literary  compositions.  Wit, 
humor,  and  ridicule,  when  introduced  judiciously,  have  an 
agreeable  effect,  and  must  next  be  considered. 

§  302.  Wit  is  that  quality  of  thoughts  and  expressions 
which  excites  in  the  mind  an  agTeeable  surprise,  not  by 
means  of  any  thing  marvellous  in  the  subject,  but  merely  by 

§  301.  What  besides  sublimity  and  beauty  are  sources  of  pleasure  iu  litcrai-y 
compositions  ? 

S  302.  What  is  wit? 


226  WIT. 

employing  a  peculiar  imagery,  or  presenting  in  a  novel  and 
lingular  relation  ideas  remotely  connected, 

§  303.  This  agreeable  surprise  is  excited  in  four  ways : — 
I.   By  degrading  elevated  things. 

II.  By  aggrandizing  insignificant  things. 

III.  By  representing  objects  in  an  unusual  light  by  means 
of  singular  imagery. 

IV.  By  paronomasia,  or  play  upon  words. 

§  304.  Of  wit  consisting  in  the  degrading  of  elevated 
subjects,  Butler  furnishes  many  specimens  in  Hudibras. 
From  these  we  select  the  following  lines,  descriptive  of 
early  dawn ;  in  which  the  low  metaphorical  style  of  the  first 
couplet  and  the  singular  simile  used  in  the  second,  consti- 
tute the  witty  points : — 

"  And  now  had  Phoebus  in  the  lap 
Of  Thetis  taken  out  his  nap : 
And,  like  a  lobster  boiled,  the  mom 
From  black  to  red  began  to  turn." 

Another  example  follows,  in  which  the  comparison  of  the  sublima 
blast  and  the  angry  thunder  to  trivial  objects  produces  the  effect  in 
question : — 

"  I  love  to  hear  the  shrieking  wind, 
Magnificently  wild  !— 
Like  the  melodious  music  of 
A  bastinadoed  child. 

"  I  love  to  hear  the  thimder  burst, 
O'er  woodland,  plain,  and  hill  ;— 
Like  the  loud  note  of  angry  swine, 
Petitioning  for  swill." 

The  object  being  to  surprise  the  mind  with  an  unexpected  deprecia- 
tion of  what  is  by  nature  serious  or  grand,  homely  expressions,  vulgar 
idioms,  and  cant  phrases,  arc  often  the  source  of  this  species  of  wit. 

To  this  division  of  the  subject  belong  parodies  and  travesties,  or 
writings  in  which  serious  productions  by  occasional  alterations  of  words 
are  made  applicable  to  other  subjects,  particularly  those  of  a  ludicrous 

§  303.  In  what  four  ways  is  this  agreeable  surprise  excited  ? 

§  304.  Who  funilshcs  many  specimens  of  the  first  species  of  wit  ?  Repeat  the 
lines  in  which  he  describes  the  early  dawn.  What  constitute  the  witty  jMjInts? 
In  the  second  example  quoted,  what  produces  the  effect  in  question  ?  What  arc 
often  tho  eourco  of  this  Bpcciea  of  wit  ?    What  belong  to  this  division  of  the  sulv 


WIT.  227 

character.  Of  a  similar  nature  are  compositions  which  maintain  a  se- 
rious tone  throughout,  until  at  the  close  some  unexpected  allusion,  sen- 
timent, or  image,  is  introduced,  which  entirely  changes  thp  tenor  of  the 
piece.     The  following  will  serve  as  a  specimen : — 

" '  Old  man !  old  man !  for  whom  digg'st  thou  this  grave  ? ' 
I  asked,  as  I  walked  along ; 
For  I  saw,  in  the  heart  of  London  streets, 
A  dark  and  busy  throng. 
"  'Twas  a  strange  wild  deed  I  but  a  wilder  wish 
Of  the  parted  soul,  to  lie 
'Midst  the  troubled  numbers  of  living  men, 
Who  would  pass  him  idly  by  I 
"  So  I  said, '  Old  man,  for  whom  digg'st  thou  this  grave, 
In  the  heart  of  London  town  ?  ' 
And  the  deep-toned  voice  of  the  digger  replied  :— 
'  We're  laying  a  gas-pipe  down  I ' " 

§  305.  The  second  species  of  wit  is  the  converse  of  that 
just  illustrated,  and  is  often  denominated  hurlesque.  Its 
object  being  to  give  a  mock  unportance  to  trivial  things,  it 
aflfects  pompous  and  sonorous  language,  just  as  the  first 
species  admits  of  the  lowest  and  most  vulgar. 

Pope's  writings  abound  in  this  kind  of  pleasantry.  In  the  following 
extract  from  the  "  Rape  of  the  Lock  ",  he  represents  a  lady's  toilet  under 
the  allegory  of  a  solemn  religious  ceremony.  The  belle  herself  figures 
as  priestess  of  the  mysteries,  assisted  in  her  sacred  office  by  the  dress- 
ing-maid, while  her  mirrored  image  is  the  divinity  whose  rites  are  thus 

celebrated : — 

"  And  now  unveiled,  the  toilet  stands  displayed, 
Each  silver  vase  in  mystic  order  laid. 
First,  robed  in  white,  the  nymph  intent  adores, 
With  head  uncovered,  the  cosmetic  powers. 
A  heavenly  image  in  the  glass  appears, 
To  that  she  bends,  to  that  her  eyes  she  rears. 
The  inferior  priestess  at  her  altar's  side. 
Trembling,  begins  the  sacred  rites  of  pride ; 
Unnumbered  treasures  ope  at  once,  and  here 
The  various  offerings  of  the  world  appear ; 
From  each  she  nicely  culls  with  curious  toil, 
And  decks  the  goddess  with  the  glittering  spoil." 

iect?  What  is  meant  ^aJ parodies?  What  other  compositions  are  of  a  similar 
nature  ?  Give  the  substance  of  the  piece  quoted,  and  show  wherein  the  wit  con- 
sists. 

§  305.  What  is  the  second  species  of  wit  often  denominated  ?  What  is  its  ob- 
ject, and  what  does  it  affect  ?  Whose  writings  abound  in  this  kind  of  pleas- 
antry ?  What  is  the  subject  of  the  passage  quoted  ?  How  does  the  author  rep- 
resent it  ?    Wherein  consists  the  wit  ? 


228  Wtt. 

Under  this  head  fall  the  applications  of  grave  reflections  to  frivolous 
subjects,  as  in  the  following  lines  from  Phillips : — 

"My  galligaskins,  that  have  long  withstood 
The  winter's  fury  and  encroaching  frosts, 
By  time  subdued  (what  will  not  time  subdue  ! ), 
An  horrid  chasm  disclose." 

Analogous  to  this  is  the  connection  of  small  things  with  great, 
whereby  they  are  represented  as  of  equal  importance.  Pope  furnishes 
many  passages  in  point : — 

"  Then  flashed  the  livid  lightning  from  her  eyes, 
And  screams  of  horror  rend  the  affrighted  skies. 
Not  louder  shrieks  to  pitying  heaven  arc  cast, 
When  husbands,  or  when  lap-dogs,  breathe  their  last  1 
Or  when  rich  china  vessels,  fallen  from  high. 
In  glittering  dust  and  painted  fragments  lie  I  " 

"  Not  youthful  kings  In  battle  seized  alive. 
Not  scornful  virgins  who  their  charms  survive, 
Not  ardent  lovers  robbed  of  all  their  bliss. 
Not  ancient  ladles  when  refused  a  kiss, 
Not  tyrants  fierce  that  unrepentlng  die. 
Not  Cynthia  when  her  manteau's  pinned  awry,— 
E'er  felt  such  rage,  resentment,  and  despair. 
As  thou,  sad  virgin  I  for  thy  ravished  hair." 

§  306.  Of  the  third  species  of  wHlt,  which  surprises  the 
mind  with  the  singularity  of  the  images  it  employs,  there  are 
many  varieties,  of  which  a  few  specimens  may  be  presented. 

The  first  consists  in  connecting  things  between  which  there  is  an 
apparent  contrariety.  Tims,  Roger  de  Coverley,  in  the  Spectator,  says 
tliat  he  would  have  given  his  widow  *  a  coal-pit  to  have  kept  her  in  clean 
linen  ;  and  that  her  fingers  should  have  sparkled  with  one  hundred  of 
his  richest  acres.'  So,  Garth,  in  the  following  lines,  compares  the  dropsy 
to  a  miser,  and  produces  an  agreeable  surprise  in  the  mind  by  represent- 
ing it  as  poor  in  the  midst  of  opulence,  and  thirsty  though  drenched 
with  water : — 

"  Then  Hydrops  next  appears  among  the  throng ; 
Bloated  and  big,  she  slowly  sails  along : 
But  like  a  miser  in  excess  she's  poor. 
And  pines  for  thirst  amid  her  watery  store." 

What  else  fall  under  this  head  ?  Give  an  example,  and  show  where  the  wit 
lies.  In  what  other  way  is  a  similar  ofl'oct  produced?  In  the  passages  quoted 
from  Pope,  sliow  what  constitutes  the  wit. 

§  80C.  With  what  does  the  third  species  of  wit  surprise  the  mind?  In  what 
does  the  first  variety  consist  ?  Howls  this  exemplified  In  the  Spectator?  To 
what  does  Garth  compare  the  dropsy  ?    How  does  he  produce  an  agreeable  sur- 


WIT.  229 

A  second  variety  consists  in  artfully  confounding  the  literal  and  fig- 
nrative  sense  of  an  expression.  In  this  way,  what  at  first  sight  presents 
a  specious  appearance  is  presently  seen  to  be  absurd ;  as  in  the  follow- 
ing lines  from  Hudibras : — 

"While  thus  they  talked,  the  knight 
Turned  the  outside  of  his  eyes  to  white, 
As  men  of  inward  light  are  wont 
To  turn  their  optics  in  upon 't." 

The  eye  is  naturally  turned  to  light,  and  hence  the  closing  line  at 
first  seems  reasonable ;  but,  when  we  reflect  that  it  is  the  metaphorical 
light  of  knowledge  to  which  reference  is  here  made,  the  absurdity  be- 
comes manifest. 

A  third  variety  attributes  corporeal  or  personal  attributes  to  what 
is  incapable,  by  its  very  nature,  of  possessing  them.  Thus,  in  the  fol- 
lowing passage,  grace,  or  piety,  and  virtue,  are  represented  as  so  nearly 
related  to  each  other  that  a  marriage  between  them  (that  is,  their  union 
in  the  same  person)  would  be  unlawful : — 

"What  makes  morality  a  crime 
The  most  notorious  of  the  time ; 
Morality,  which  both  the  saints    • 
And  wicked  too  cry  out  against  ? 
'Cause  grace  and  virtue  are  within 
Prohibited  degrees  of  kin : 
And  therefore  no  true  saint  allows 
They  shall  be  suffered  to  espouse." 

A  fourth  variety  consists  in  attributing  to  a  person  as  a  virtue  what 
is  merely  a  necessity ;  as  in  the  following : — 

*'  The  advantage  of  the  medical  profession  is  that  the  dead  are  distiu' 
guished  by  wonderful  charity  and  discretion ;  we  never  hear  them  com- 
plain of  the  physic  that  has  killed  them." 

There  are  many  other  phases  in  which  this  species  of  wit  is  displayed. 
We  shall  content  ourselves  with  mentioning  but  one  more  ;  that  in  which 
premises  are  introduced  that  promise  much  but  perform  nothing ;  as  in 
the  following : — 

Beatrice. With  a  good  leg  and  a  good  foot,  uncle,  and  money 

enough  in  his  purse,  such  a  man  would  win  any  woman  in  the  world,  if 
he  could  get  her  good-will. 

Much  Ado  about  Nothing,  Act  11.^  Sc.  L 

Beatrice.  I  have  a  good  eye,  uncle,  I  can  see  a  church  by  daylight. 
^Ibid. 


prise  in  the  mind  ?  In  what  does  the  second  variety  of  this  kind  of  wit  consist  ? 
Illustrate  it  from  Hudibras,  and  show  the  point.  Describe  the  third  variety.  Give 
the  substance  of  the  quotation  from  Hudibras  which  illustrates  it.  In  what  does 
the  fourtli  variety  consist  ?  Illustrate  it.  Describe  the  fifth  variety.  Dlustratc  it. 


230  wrr. 

g  307.  The  last  species  of  wit  is  what  the  French  call 
jeu  de  mots,  and  what  we  recognize  in  English  as  the  pun, 
or  a  play  upon  words.  Though  regarded  as  the  lowest  kind 
of  wit,  yet  there  are  few  to  whom  it  is  not,  at  times,  a 
source  of  amusement.  In  tracing  its  history,  we  find  that  it 
has  been  a  favorite  entertainment  with  all  nations  in  a  cer- 
tain stage  of  their  progress  towards  refinement  of  taste  and 
manners,  and  has  afterwards  gradually,  though  invariably, 
fallen  into  disrepute.  Thus,  in  England,  during  the  reigns 
of  Elizabeth  and  James  I.,  it  was  regarded  as  one  of  the 
chief  graces  of  writing,  and  as  such  entered,  not  only  into 
the  works  of  Shakspeare  and  other  great  dramatists,  but  also 
into  the  sermons  and  moral  essays  of  grave  divines. 

As  soon  as  a  language  is  formed  into  a  system,  and  the  meaning  of 
words  is  ascertained  with  tolerable  accuracy,  opportunity  is  afforded  for 
expressions,  which,  by  the  double  meaning  of  certain  words,  in  reality 
have  an  entirely  diflferent  meaning  from  what  at  first  sight  they  seem 
to  have ;  and  the  penetration  of  the  reader  or  hearer  is  gratified  by  de- 
tecting the  true  sense  in  spite  of  its  disguise.  But,  in  process  of  time, 
the  language  becomes  matured;  the  meaning  of  its  words  is  more  stric; 
ly  defined;  those  capable  of  a  double  application,  having  been  once 
used  in  this  way,  lose  their  effect  for  the  future,  inasmuch  as  without 
novelty  they  can  excite  no  surprise  or  pleasure  in  the  mind :  and  thus 
the  pun  falls  in  the  estimation  of  the  tasteful  and  judicious. 

Novelty,  as  just  remarked,  is  essential  to  the  effect  of  a  pun ;  as, 
indeed,  it  is  to  all  kinds  of  wit.  Nothing  is  more  tasteless,  we  may  al- 
most say  disgusting,  than  a  joke  that  has  become  stale  through  frequent 
repetition.  Any  appearance  of  study  or  premeditation  also  detracts 
from  the  effect  of  a  pun;  and  hence,  what  appears  excellent  when 
thrown  out  extemporaneously  in  conversation,  may  be  intolerable  when 
put  in  print. 

Examples  of  paronomasia,  or  a  play  upon  words,  arc  so  common  that 
only  a  few  specimens  arc  here  necessary  for  the  illustration  of  the  sub- 
ject.   The  word  in  whose  double  meaning  the  point  lies,  is  in  italics. 

§  307.  What  Is  tho  last  species  of  wit  here  preeentod,  called  by  the  French  ? 
What  do  we  call  it  in  English?  How  is  it  regarded?  In  tracing  its  hinton 
what  do  we  find  ?  At  what  time  was  it  much  esteemed  in  England  ?  Into  whot>o 
writings  did  it  largely  enter?  At  what  period  of  the  history  of  a  language  is  an 
opportunity  afforded  for  effective  puns  ?  What  takes  place  in  procets  of  time  ? 
What  is  eBsential  to  the  effect  of  a  pun  ?    Explain  how  a  pun  may  appear  excel- 


HUMOR   AND   KIDICULE.  231 

We  may  add  that  conundrums,  rebuses,  and  riddles  in  general,  arc  em- 
braced in  this  class  of  witticisms. 

"  They  say  thine  eyes,  like  sunny  skies, 
Thy  chief  attraction  form  ; 
I  see  no  sunshine  in  those  eyes,— 
They  take  one  all  !>y  storm.'''' 

"  Here  thou,  great  Anna  1  whom  three  realms  ohey, 
Dost  sometimes  counsel  take and  sometimes  tea." 

"Prince  Eugene  is  a  great  taJcer  of  snuff  as  well  as  of  towns." 

EPITAPH  ON  A  SCOLDING  WIPE. 

"  Beneath  this  stone  my  wife  doth  lie ; 
She's  now  at  at  rest,  and  so  am  I." 

EPIGRAM  ON  A  SHREW. 

"  They  tell  me  that  your  brow  is  fair, 
And  is  surpassed  by  none ; 
To  me  the  cause  is  very  clear— 
You  brow-beat  every  one." 

Sometimes  the  wit  of  the  pun  consists,  not  in  the  double  meaning  of 
a  word,  but  in  its  having  the  same  sound  as  some  other  word,  with  which 
it  is  brought  into  juxta-position  for  the  purpose  of  temporarily  mislead- 
ing the  hearer.  This  is  illustrated  at  the  beginning  and  close  of  the 
following  Baker's  Advertisement : — "  The  subscriber,  knowing  that  all 
men  need  bread,  wishes  the  public  to  know  that  he  also  kneads  it.  He  is 
desirous  of  feeding  all  who  are  hungry,  and  hopes  his  good  works  may  be 
in  the  mouth  of  every  one.  He  is  well-disposed  towards  all  men ;  and 
the  best  bred  people  among  us  will  find  him,  he  hopes,  one  of  the  best 
bread-men  in  the  city." 


LESSON  XLVI. 

HUMOR      AND      RIDICULE. 

§  308.  Humor  consists,  for  the  most  part,  in  a  represen- 
tation of  imaginary,  short-lived,  or  over-strained  emotions, 

lent  when  extemporaneously  thrown  off,  yet  very  poor  when  subsequently  re- 
lated. What  is  the  technical  name  of  the  pim  ?  What  else  are  embraced  in  this 
class  of  witticisms  ? 

In  what  does  the  wit  of  the  pun  sometimee  consist  ?    Give  an  example. 

§  308.  In  what  does  humor  consist?    Under  what  head  do  representations  of 


HUMOR  AND    EIDICULE. 

which  display  themselves  preposterously,  or  so  as  to  excite 
derision  rather  than  sympathy. 

Representations  of  real  emotion,  in  the  display  of  which  there  is  no 
violation  of  taste  or  good  sense,  fall  under  the  head  of  the  pathetic,  to 
which,  consequently,  the  humorous  is  opposed.  These  two  kinds  of 
writing  are  much  heightened  in  effect  by  being  presented  in  contrast ;  a 
fact  of  which  writers  of  fiction  often  avail  themselves.  This  constitutes 
the  chief  charm  of  Dickens's  novels. 

§  309.  The  subject  of  humor  is  character :  not  every- 
thing in  character ;  not  its  graver  faults  or  vices ;  but  its 
peculiarities,  its  foibles,  caprices,  extravagances,  anxieties, 
jealousies,  childish  fondnesses,  and  weaknesses  generally, — 
its  affectation,  vanity,  and  self-conceit. 

One  who  possesses  a  talent  for  the  humorous  finds  the  greatest  scope 
for  its  display  in  telling  familiar  stories,  or  acting  a  whimsical  part  in 
an  assumed  character.  Even  the  mimicking  of  minute  peculiarities  of 
pronunciation,  or  grammatical  faults  in  discourse,  is  admissible  in  the 
humorous  production.  The  object  is  to  expose  the  weak  points  of  the 
individual  under  description ;  and  these  are  often  best  set  forth  by  en- 
tering into  the  minutest  details.  Even  over-acting,  if  not  immoaerate, 
contributes  to  the  entertainment  of  the  picture. 

§  310.  Humor  is  not,  like  wit,  sudden  and  short-lived ;  a 
brilliant  scintillation,  which  flashes  forth,  and  is  then  lost  in 
obscurity.  It  often  extends  through  entire  productions ;  and, 
indeed,  forms  the  staple  of  comic  writing  in  general.  Buck- 
ingham justly  says  of  comedy, 

"  Humor  is  all.    Wit  should  be  only  brousht 
To  turn  agreeably  gome  proper  thought." 

Novelty,  moreover,  i^  not  essential  to  humor.  Its  truth- 
fulness to  nature  prevents  it  from  being  tiresome ;  and  it  en- 
dures readings  and  re-readings,  which  would  make  mere  wit 
absolutely  disgusting. 

real  emotion  fall  ?  Of  what  fiict  do  writers  of  fiction  often  avail  themselves  ?  Of 
whose  works  docs  this  conntltate  the  chief  charm  ? 

§  309.  What  is  the  subject  of  humor  ?  In  what  docs  a  talent  for  the  humomus 
find  the  best  field  for  its  display  ?  IIow  arc  the  weak  points  of  au  individual 
often  best  exposed  ?    What  is  the  cfi'oct  of  over-acting  ? 

§  310.  How  does  humor  compare  with  M-it  in  duration  ?  Of  what  does  it  form 
the  staple  ?  What  docs  Buckingham  say  of  its  use  in  comedy  f  What  prcvcnti 
linmor  from  being  tiresome  ? 


HUMOR   AND    RIDICULE.  233 

§  311.  Ill  every  literature,  humor  has  been  employed,  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  in  the  lighter  departments  of  compo- 
sition, as  a  means  of  pleasing.  Cervantes,  perhaps,  in  his 
Don  Quixote,  has  carried  it  to  a  greater  degree  of  perfection 
than  any  other  writer.  Into  English  literature,  particularly 
its  dramatic  compositions,  it  enters  largely.  Shakspeare, 
Gay,  Farquhar,  and  others,  have  used  it  with  great  effect. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  English  comedy  has  not  confined  itself  to 
pure  and  legitimate  humor.  To  the  discredit  of  our  stage,  obscenity  and 
ribaldry  are  too  often  allowed  to  take  its  place.  This  can  hardly  be  at- 
tributed to  a  lack  of  natural  refinement.  The  cause  seems  rather  to  be 
that  the  first  great  masterpieces  in  this  department  of  literature,  written 
in  a  licentious  age,  were  stained  with  gross  indelicacy,  which  subse- 
quent authors,  with  this  precedent  before  them,  deemed  it  necessary  to 
imitate.     With  obscenity,  humor  has  nothing  in  common. 

§  312.  The  aim  of  humor  is  simply  to  raise  a  laugh. 
When  there  is  an  ulterior  object, — that  is,  when  it  is  sought 
by  means  of  this  laugh  to  influence  the  opinions  and  pur- 
poses of  the  hearer  or  reader, — then  humor  becomes  ridi- 
cule. In  this  case,  a  keener  contempt  of  the  weakness 
under  review  must  be  awakened  than  in  the  case  of  humor. 

Ridicule  is  to  argumentative  composition  what  the  reductio  ad  absuv' 
dum  is  to  a  mathematical  demonstration, — a  negative,  yet  satisfactory, 
way  of  arriving  at  the  object  proposed.  It  may  be  effectively  applied  to 
whatever  is  absurd,  and,  in  a  measure,  also,  to  what  is  false.  When  sober 
argument  would  be  too  dignified  and  formidable  a  weapon  to  employ, 
ridicule  may  with  propriety  take  its  place.  To  a  certain  extent,  the 
same  foibles  feel  its  lash  as  are  open  to  the  more, genial  attacks  of  hu- 
mor. It  goes,  however,  a  step  further ;  adding  to  the  former  category, 
ignorance,  cowardice,  profligacy,  and  dishonesty.  Great  crimes  are  be- 
yond its  sphere.  To  raise  a  laugh  at  cruelty,  perfidy,  or  murder,  would 
be  intolerable. 


§311.  In  what  departments  of  literature  is  humor  extensively  employed? 
Who  has  carried  it  to  the  greatest  perfection  ?  What  is  said  of  English  comedy  ? 
What  seems  to  he  the  cause  of  this  ? 

§  312.  What  is  the  aim  of  humor  ?  When  does  humor  become  ridicule  ?  Wh?t 
feeling  is  in  this  case  awakened?  To  what  is  the  relation  between  ridicule  and 
argumentative  composition  compared?  To  what  may  ridicule  be  applied  ?  When 
may  it  with  propriety  take  the  place  of  argument  ?  What  are  beyond  its  sphere, 
tnd  why  ? 


234  HUMOR  AND  RIDICULE. 

§  313.  The  attack  of  ridicule  is,  from  its  very  nature,  a 
covert  one.  "What  we  profess  to  contemn,  we  scorn  to  con- 
fute. Hence,  the  reasoning  of  which  ridicule  is  the  medium 
must  be  carried  on  under  a  species  of  disguise.  Sometimes  the 
contempt  itself  is  dissembled,  and  the  railer  assumes  an  air  of 
arguing  gravely  in  defence  of  what  he  is  exposing  as  ridicu- 
lous. He  affects  to  be  in  earnest ;  but  takes  care  to  employ 
so  thin  a  veil  that  one  can  easily  see  through  it  and  discern 
his  real  intent.  Such  a  course  of  reasoning  is  Icnown  as 
irony ^  and  it  often  constitutes  the  most  effective  way  of 
dealing  with  folly  and  falsity. 

We  have  a  brief  specimen  of  ironical  ridicule  in  Elijah's  address  to 
the  priests  of  Baal,  who  were  endeavoring  by  sacrifices  and  prayers  to 
draw  a  manifestation  of  power  from  their  false  god  : — "  Cry  aloud :  for 
he  is  a  god :  either  he  is  talking,  or  he  is  pursuing,  or  he  is  in  a  journey, 
or  peradventure  he  sleepeth,  and  must  be  awakened." 

EXERCISE. 
The  first  extract  given  below  illustrates  humor;   the 
second,  ridicule.     Let  the  student  point  out  their  distin- 
guishing features ;  and,  as  an  exercise  in  punctuation,  let 
liim  supply  such  points  as  are  omitted. 

THE  LANGUID  LADY. 

"  The  languid  lady  next  appears  in  state 
Who  was  not  born  to  carry  her  own  weight 
She  lolls  reels  staggers  till  some  foreign  aid 
To  her  own  stature  lifts  the  feeble  maid. 
Then  if  ordained  to  so  severe  a  doom 
She  by  just  stages  journeys  round  the  room 
But  knowing  her  own  weakness  she  despairs 
To  scale  the  Alps  that  is  ascend  the  stairs. 
My  fan  let  others  say  who  laugh  at  toil 
Fan  hood  glove  scarf  is  her  laconic  style 
And  that  is  spoke  with  such  a  dying  fall 
That  Betty  rather  sees  than  hears  the  call 
The  motion  of  her  lips  and  meaning  eye 
Piece  out  the  idea  her  ftiint  words  deny. 

\  818.  What  is  the  character  of  the  attack  of  ridicule  ?  How  must  the  reason- 
ing of  which  it  is  the  medium  be  carried  on?  Sometimes,  what  docs  the  rallcr 
t»com  to  be  doing?  What  does  he  tnko  cnre,  however,  that  the  heartT  or  reader 
shall  discover  ?  What  name  is  given  to  this  species  of  ridicule  ?  What  is  said 
of  its  effect  ?    Repeat  the  quoted  Bpccimen  of  ironical  ridicule. 


FiauKES.  235 

Oh  listen  with  attention  most  profound 
Her  voice  is  but  the  shadow  of  a  sound. 
And  help  oh  help  her  spirits  are  so  dead 
One  hand  scarce  lifts  the  other  to  her  head 
If  there  a  stubborn  pin  it  triumphs  o'er 
She  pants  she  sinks  away  and  is  no  more. 
Let  the  robust  and  the  gigantic  carve 
Life  is  not  worth  so  much  she'd  rather  starve 
But  chew  she  must  herself  ah  cruel  fate 
That  Rosalinda  can't  by  proxy  eat." — Young. 

THE  PKOFOUND  WHITER. 

"  By  these  methods  in  a  few  weeks  there  starts  up  many  a  writer  ca- 
pable of  managing  the  profoundest  and  most  universal  subjects.  For 
what  though  his  head  be  empty  provided  his  commonplace  book  be  full. 
And  if  you  will  bate  him  but  the  circumstances  of  method  and  style  and 
grammar  and  invention  allow  him  but  the  common  privileges  of  tran- 
scribing from  others  and  digressing  from  himself  as  often  as  he  shall  see 
occasion  he  will  desire  no  more  ingredients  towards  fitting  up  a  treatise 
that  shall  make  a  very  comely  figure  on  a  bookseller's  shelf  there  to  be 
preserved  neat  and  clean  for  a  long  eternity  adorned  with  the  heraldry 
of  its  title  fairly  inscribed  on  a  label  never  to  be  thumbed  or  greased  by 
students  nor  bound  to  everlasting  chains  of  darkness  in  a  library  but 
when  the  fulness  of  time  is  come  shall  happily  undergo  the  trial  of  pur- 
gatory in  order  to  ascend  the  sky." — Swift. 


LESSON    XLVII. 

FIGUEES   OP   OETHOGEAPHY,   ETYMOLOGY,   AND   SYNTAX. 

§  314.  FiGUEES  are  intentional  deviations  from  the  or- 
dinary spelling,  form,  construction,  or  application,  of  words. 
They  are  arranged  in  four  classes ;  figures  of  orthography, 
figures  of  etymology,  figures  of  syntax,  and  figures  of  rhet- 
oric. Though  admissible  in  both  prose  and  poetry,  they 
occur  more  frequently  in  the  latter. 

§  315.  Figures  of  orthography  are  intentional  deviations 
from  the  ordinary  spelling  of  words.  They  are  two  in  num- 
ber ;  Mi-me'-sis  and  Ar'-cha-ism. 

§  314.  What  are  figures  ?    Into  what  classes  are  they  divided  ?    In  what  do 
they  most  frequently  occur  ? 


236       FIGUKES   OF   ORTHOGRAPHY   AND   ETYMOLOGY. 

Mimesis  consists  in  imitating  the  mispronunciation  of  a 
word,  by  means  of  false  spelling ;  as,  "  Well,  zwr,  I'll  argify 
the  topic." 

Archaism  consists  in  spelling  a  word  according  to  ancient 
usage ;  as,  "  The  gret  Kyng  hathe,  every  day,  fifty  fair  Damy- 
seles,  alle  Maydenes^  that  serven  him  everemore  at  his  Mete.'''' 

§  316.  Figures  of  etymology  are  intentional  deviations 
from  the  ordinary  forms  of  words.  Those  most  used  are  eiglit 
in  number;  A-phaer'-e-sis,  Pros'-the-sis,  Syn'-co-pe,  A-poc'-o- 
pe,  Par-a-go'-ge,  Di-aer'-e-sis,  Syn-aer'-e-sis,  and  Tme'-sis. 

A2:)hceresis  is  the  elision  of  a  letter  or  letters  from  tlie 
beginning  of  a  word  :  as,  ^bove,  for  above  ;  hieath,  for  be?ieath. 

I^osthesis  is  the  prefixing  of  a  letter  or  letters  to  a  word : 
as,  adownj  for  dow7i ;  bedecked,  for  decked. 

Syncope  is  the  elision  of  a  letter  or  letters  from  the  mid- 
dle of  a  word:  as,  ^en,  for  even ;  ha^ penny,  for  halfpenny. 

Apocope  is  the  elisipn  of  a  letter  or  letters  at  the  end  of 
a  word :  as,  th\  for  the  ;  tho\  for  though. 

Paragoge  is  the  annexing  of  a  letter  or  letters  to  a 
word :  as,  vasty,  for  vast  y  withoutcn,  for  loithout, 

Dimresis  is  the  separation  into  different  syllables  of  two 
contiguous  vowels  that  might  unite  in  a  diphthong.  This 
figure  is  usually  indicated  by  placing  two  dots  over  the  last 
of  the  separated  vowels.  Thus,  aeronaut,  instead  of  cefro- 
naut ;  cooperate,  for  cooperate. 

Synceresis  is  the  condensing  of  two  syllables  into  one : 
as,  waWst,  for  walkest  ;  haUoioed,  for  hallow-ed 

It  was  formerly  customary  to  make  the  participial  termination  td  a 
separate  syllable  ;  as,  lov-cd^  droum-ed.  This  practice  is  still  adhered  to 
by  some  in  solemn  discourse ;  but,  in  common  pronunciation,  SN-neoresis 


§  815.  What  arc  flgtircs  of  orthography  ?  Name  them.  In  what  does  Mimesis 
conoist  ?    In  what.  Archaism  ? 

§  310.  What  arc  flj^ires  of  etymology  ?  Mention  the  principal  once,  observ- 
ing that  an  acute  accent  in  each  case  denotc8  the  syllable  that  receives  the 
stress  of  the  voice.  Define  them  in  turn,  and  give  examples  of  each.  In  the  case 
of  Aphajresis  and  other  figures  that  consist  in  elisions,  what  mark  must  be  em- 
ployed? Howls  Difcrcsis  indicated?  What  termination  was  formerly  made  a 
••parate  syllable  ?    What  is  the  pmctlce  at  the  preeent  day  ? 


FIGUEES   OF   SYNTAX.  237 

incorporates  the  final  ed  with  the  preceding  syllable,  whenever  this  is  not 
impossible  by  reason  of  the  nature  of  the  letters. 

Tmesis  is  the  separating  of  the  parts  of  a  compound  by 
introducing  a  word  or  words  between  them :  as,  what  wai/ 
soever  he  turned ;  to  us  ward. 

§  317.  Figures  of  syntax  are  intentional  deviations  from 
the  ordinary  construction  of  words.  Those  most  in  use  are 
five  in  number;  El-Hp'-sis,  Ple'-o-nasm,  Syl-lep'-sis,  En-al'- 
la-ge,  and  Hy-per'-ba-ton. 

Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  a  word  or  words,  necessary  to 
the  construction  of  a  sentence,  but  not  essential  to  its  mean- 
ing ;  as,  "  [He]  who  steals  my  purse,  steals  trash." — "  To 
whom  thus  Eve  [spoke]." 

Words  thus  omitted  are  said  to  be  understood.  They  are  used  in  the 
syntactical  parsing  of  sentences,  to  explain  the  agreement  or  government 
of  the  words  expressed. 

Pleonasm  is  the  use  of  superfluous  words ;  as,  "  The  boy, 
oh  !  where  was  he?  " — "  I  know  thee,  loJio  thou  art.''''  This 
figure  often  imparts  force  to  expressions,  and  is  generally 
employed  when  the  feelings  are  strongly  excited. 

Sylleijsis  is  the  construing  of  words  according  to  the 
meaning  they  convey,  and  not  by  the  strict  requirements  of 
grammatical  rules ;  as,  "  Philip  went  down  to  the  city  of  Sa- 
maria, and  preached  Christ  unto  them.'''' — "The  moon  her 
silver  beams  dispenses." 

In  the  first  example,  city  is  3d  person,  singular  number ;  and,  accord- 
ing to  strict  grammatical  rules,  them  should  be  it.  By  the  city,  however, 
the  writer  means  tlie  people  in  the  city  ;  and  he  is,  therefore,  at  liberty  to 
use  a  pronoun  in  the  plural.  In  the  last  example,  it  will  be  seen,  there 
is  a  species  of  inferior  personification,  by  which  sex  is  attributed  to  the 
moon,  an  inanimate  object ;  we  may  therefore  substitute  a  feminine  pro- 
noun for  itSy  which,  strictly  speaking,  it  would  be  necessary  to  use.  As  in 
this  last  case,  the  deviation  which  constitutes  Syllepsis  often  arises  from 
the  introduction  of  a  rhetorical  figure,  such  as  personification  or  metaphor. 

§  317.  What  are  figures  of  syntax  ?  Name  those  most  in  use.  What  is  Ellip- 
sis ?  What  is  said  of  words  omitted  according  to  this  figrire  ?  In  what  are  they 
used  ?  What  is  Pleonasm  ?  What  does  this  figure  impart  to  expressions,  and 
When  is  it  generally  employed  ?    What  is  Syllepsis  ?    Point  out  how  this  figure 


EXEECISE  ON  FIGUEES. 

Miallage  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech,  or  one  modi- 
fication of  a  word,  for  another;  as,  "They  fall  successive 
and  successive  rise." — "  Sure  some  disaster  has  hefeW 

In  the  first  example,  we  should  have  the  adverb  successively  to  modify 
the  verbs  fall  and  Ww,  instead  of  the  adjective  successive ;  and,  in  the 
last,  the  participle  befallen,  in  place  of  the  imperfect  befell.  The  truth  is, 
that  this  figure  has  been  found  necessary,  to  excuse  the  grammatical 
errors  that  occur  in  distinguished  writers.  The  young  composer  is 
warned  against  supposing  that  Enallage  can  justify  a  violation  of  the 
rules  of  Syntax.  Perhaps  the  only  case  in  which  it  may  with  propriety 
be  used,  is  the  substitution  of  you  for  thou  and  we  for  /,  when  reference 
is  made  to  a  single  person. 

Hyperhaton  is  the  transposition  of  words ;  as, "  He  wan- 
ders earth  around," — for,  "  He  wanders  around  earth." 

This  figure  constitutes  one  of  the  chief  features  that  distinguish 
poetry  from  prose.  Judiciously  used  in  either,  it  imparts  variety, 
strength,  and  vivacity,  to  composition.  Care  must  be  taken,  however, 
not  to  carry  it  to  such  an  extent  as  to  occasion  ambiguity  or  obscurity. 

EXERCISE. 

Point  out  the  figures  that  occur  in  the  following  passages, 
and  show,  if  they  were  not  employed,  what  changes  would 
have  to  be  made  in  the  words : — 

1.  There's  but  one  pang  in  death, — leaving  the  loved.  2.  Thro'  me 
shine  the  pearly  pebbles.  3.  Maister,  have  you  any  wery  good  weal  in 
your  vallet  ?  4.  E'en  'neath  the  earth  I'll  him  pursue.  5.  At  her  feet 
he  bowed,  he  fell,  he  lay  down :  at  her  feet  he  bowed,  he  fell ;  where  he 
bowed,  there  he  fell  down  dead.  6.  It's  never  a  trouble,  so  plase  your 
honor,  for  an  Irishman  to  do  his  duty.  7.  He  touchethe  no  thing,  he 
handlethe  nought,  but  holdethe  everemore  his  Ilondes  before  him,  upon 
the  Table.  8.  Adown  the  steepy  hill  they  toil.  0.  Th'  aerial  pencil 
forms  the  scene  anew.  10.  So  little  mercy  shows  who  needs  so  much. 
11.  Pr'ythee,  peace.  12.  There  lament  they  the  live  day  long.  18.  I 
lay  in  Sion  a  stumbling-stone,  and  rock  of  oftcnce ;  and  whosoever  be- 
lieveth  on  him  shall  not  be  ashamed.  14.  Turn  thou  mo,  and  I  shall  be 
turned.     15.  He  that  hath  charity,  for  him  the  prayers  of  many  ascend. 

operates  in  Ihe  two  plven  example!'.  From  what  does  Syllepsis  often  arise  ? 
What  is  Enallacfo  ?  Show  how  it  ()i)eiatos  in  tlie  given  examples.  For  what  has 
this  figure  been  found  necessary?  Against  what  is  the  composer  warned ?  In 
what  case  may  Enallage  be  properly  emi)loyed  ?  What  is  riyperbaton  ?  In  what 
is  this  figure  most  used  ?  What  does  it  contribute  to  produce  f  What  may  rfl>- 
fiult  from  its  immoderate  use  ? 


FIGURATIVE    LANGUAGE.  239 

16.  First  Evening  draws  her  crimson  curtain,  then  Night  throws  down 
her  pall.     lY.  Consider  the  lilies  of  the  field,  how  they  grow. 

18.  Dan  Chaucer,  Well  of  English  undefyled, 

On  Fame's  eternall  beadroU  worthie  to  be  fyled. 

19.  *  *  Let  us  instant  go, 
O'erturn  his  bowers,  and  lay  his  castle  low. 

20.  'Tis  Fancy,  in  her  fiery  car, 
Transports  me  to  the  thickest  war. 

21.  Who  never  fasts,  no  banquet  e'er  enjoys. 

22.  Bliss  is  the  same  in  subject  as  in  king, 
In  who  obtain  defence,  or  who  defendL 


LESSON    i^LVIII. 

riGUEATIVE  LANGUAGE. 

§  318.  The  figures  defined  in  the  last  lesson,  though  it 
is  important  that  the  student  should  be  able  to  recognize 
them,  and,  if  need  be,  use  them,  have  but  little  to  do  with 
style,  compared  with  those  which  we  shall  next  consider,  and 
which  are  known  as  figures  of  rhetoric.  Before  proceeding 
to  treat  of  these  separately,  we  may  with  propriety  consider 
figurative  language  in  general,  its  origin,  its  pecuharities, 
and  the  advantages  gained  by  its  use. 

§  319.  Definition. — Figurative  language  implies  a  de- 
parture from  the  simple  or  ordinary  mode  of  expression ;  a 
clothing  of  ideas  in  words  which  not  only  convey  the  mean- 
ing, but,  through  a  comparison  or  some  other  means  of  ex- 
citing the  imagination,  convey  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  make 
a  lively  and  forcible  impression  on  the  mind. 

Thus,  if  we  say,  "  Saladin  was  shrewd  in  the  council,  brave  in  the 
field,"  we  express  the  thought  in  the  simplest  manner  ;  but  if  we  vary 

§  318.  How  do  the  figures  just  defined  compare  in  importance  with  figures  of 
rhetoric  ?  Before  proceeding  to  treat  of  the  latter,  what  is  it  proposed  to  consider  ? 

§  319.  What  does  figurative  language  imply  ?  Illustrate  its  use  with  the  two 
examples  given. 


24:0  FIGURATIVE    LANGUAGE. 

the  expression  thus,  "  Saladin  was  a  fox  in  the  council,  a  lion  in  the 
field,"  we  clothe  the  same  sentiment  in  figurative  language.  Instead  of 
cunning  and  courage,  we  introduce  the  animals  that  possess  these  quali- 
ties in  the  highest  degree,  and  thus  present  livelier  images  to  the  mind. 
So,  we  have  a  plain  and  simple  proposition  in  the  sentence,  "  It  is  impos- 
sible, even  by  the  most  careful  search,  fully  to  ascertain  the  divine  na- 
ture." But  when  we  say,  "  Canst  thou,  by  searching,  find  out  God  ? 
Canst  thou  find  out  the  Almighty  to  perfection  ?  It  is  high  as  heaven, 
what  canst  thou  do  ?  deeper  than  hell,  what  canst  thou  know  ?  "  we 
unite  with  the  same  proposition  questions  expressive  of  admiration,  and 
thus  render  it  more  forcible. 

§  320.  Origin. — To  account  for  the  origin  of  figures,  we 
must  go  back  to  that  of  language  itself,  for  they  are  coeval. 
At  this  early  period,  men  would  naturally  begin  with  giving 
names  to  the  different  objects  with  which  they  came  in  con- 
tact. Their  nomenclature  was  at  first,  of  course,  limited  and 
imperfect ;  but,  as  knowledge  increased  and  ideas  multiplied, 
the  store  of  words  would  naturally  increase  also.  Neverthe- 
less, to  the  infinite  variety  of  objects  and  ideas,  language  was 
inadequate ;  or  rather,  to  extend  it  so  as  to  have  a  separate 
word  for  each,  would  have  involved  a  vocabulary  too  cum- 
brous for  even  the  best  memories.  This  difficulty  was  to  be 
avoided ;  and  a  natural  expedient  was  adopted, — that  of  mak- 
ing a  word  already  applied  to  one  idea  or  object  stand  for 
another,  between  which  and  the  primary  one  they  found  or 
fancied  some  resemblance  to  exist.  Thus,  compassion  in  the 
human  breast,  as  well  as  mildness  of  speech,  seemed  to  be  a 
kindred  idea  to  softness  in  material  bodies.  The  latter  term 
was  therefore  extended  to  the  two  former  ideas ;  we  speak 
with  equal  propriety  of  a  soft  bed,  a  soft  heart,  and  soft  tcords. 

Figures  of  this  kind  abound  in  all  languages.  The  operations  of  the 
mind  and  affections,  in  particular,  arc  designated  by  words  originally  ap- 
plied to  sensible  objects.     These  words,  being  earliest  introduced,  were 


§  820.  To  account  for  tho  origin  of  flpures,  to  what  must  we  po  back?  With 
what  would  men  naturally  begin  ?  What  was  the  character  of  their  nomenclature 
at  first?  When  did  it  begin  to  be  extended  ?  What  was  the  objection  to  invent- 
ing a  separate  word  for  each  idea  and  object?  What  natural  expedient  waa 
adopted?  Olvc  an  illustration.  To  what  objects  were  names  flr^t  given?  To 
what,  in  particular,  were  these  names  afterwards  extended?    Cite  some  espres- 


FIGITEATIYE    LANGUAGE.  241 

naturally  extended,  by  degrees,  to  those  mental  peculiarities  of  which  men 
had  more  obscure  ideas  and  to  which  they  found  greater  difficulty  in  as- 
signing distinct  names.  Hence  arose  such  expressions  as  a  piercing 
judgment,  a  warm  and  a  cold  heart,  a  rough  temper.  In  some  cases, 
these  figurative  words  are  the  only  ones  that  can  well  be  applied  to  such 
ideas ;  as  the  student  will  be  convinced,  on  attempting  to  find  a  synony- 
mous expression  for  "a  cold  ot  freezing  reception". 

With  the  origin  of  figures,  moreover,  imagination  has  had  much  to 
do.  Every  object  that  makes  an  impression  on  the  mind  is  accompanied 
with  certain  cognate  ideas.  Nothing  presents  itself  in  an  isolated  man- 
ner. There  are  relations  which  inseparably  connect  every  material  ob- 
ject with  other  things  which  either  precede  or  follow  it,  produce  it  or 
are  produced  by  it,  resemble  it  or  are  opposed  to  it.  Thus  every  idea 
carries  others  in  its  train,  which  may  be  regarded  as  its  accessories ;  and 
the  latter  often  strike  the  mind  more  forcibly  than  the  principal  idea  it- 
self. They  are  pleasanter,  perhaps,  or  more  familiar ;  or  they  recall  to 
remembrance  a  greater  variety  of  important  circumstances.  The  imagi- 
nation, thus  disposed  to  rest  on  the  accessory  rather  than  on  the  prin- 
cipal object,  often  applies  to  the  latter  the  name  or  epithet  originally 
appropriated  to  the  former.  Hence,  choice,  as  well  as  the  necessity 
alluded  to  above,  has  given  currency  to  a  great  number  of  figurative  ex- 
pressions, and  men  of  lively  imaginations  are  adding  to  them  every  day. 
Thus,  instead  of  saying,  "  Under  Augustus,  Rome  enjoyed  greater  power 
and  glory  than  at  any  other  period,"  we  take  an  analogous  idea,  sug- 
gested by  imagination  from  the  growth  of  a  plant  or  tree,  and  say, 
"  Rome  flotirished  most  under  Augustus ; "  or,  remembering  that,  when 
a  heavenly  body  is  directly  overhead,  and  therefore  apparently  at  the 
highest  point  of  its  orbit,  astronomers  say  it  is  at  its  zenith,  we  substitute 
this  accessory  and  say,  "  Under  Augustus,  Rome  was  at  the  zenith  of  her 
power  and  glory," — and  thus  express  the  thought  more  tersely  and  point- 
edly than  by  the  literal  language  above  cited. 

§  321.  History. — Such  was  the  origin  of  figurative  lan- 
guage. First  introduced  by  necessity,  it  was  found  to  yield 
such  pleasure  to  the  imagination  and  communicate  so  much 
life  to  composition,  that  men  used  it  in  preference  to  plain 


sions  which  arose  in  this  way.  What  faculty  of  the  mind,  also,  liad  much  to  do  with 
the  origin  of  figures  ?  Describe  the  way  in  which  it  operated  to  produce  them. 
Express,  in  plain  language,  the  fact  that  under  Augustus  Rome  attained  her 
greatest  power  and  glory.  Express  the  same  sentiment  figuratively  in  two  dif- 
ferent ways.    Show,  in  each  case,  whence  the  figure  is  derived. 

§  331.  What  two  causes,  then,  led  to  the  use  of  figurative  language  ?    When 


242  FIGTrEATTVE    LANGUAGE. 

language,  even  when  they  could  express  their  meaning 
equally  well  by  means  of  the  latter.  Both  these  causes  op- 
erated with  special  force  in  the  early  stages  of  society.  The 
barrenness  of  language  made  it  necessary  to  use  words  in  a 
figurative  sense ;  while  imagination,  then  more  vivid  than  in 
subsequent  ages,  gave  a  decided  preference  to  terms  so  em- 
ployed. As  it  was  in  the  infancy  of  society,  so  we  find  it  gen- 
erally to  be  with  savage  tribes.  New  objects  strongly  im- 
press their  minds.  They  are  governed  by  imagination  and 
passion,  rather  than  reason ;  and  this  is  shown  in  their  lan- 
guage. The  North  American  Indian  tongues  afford  striking 
illustrations  of  this  fact.  Bold,  picturesque,  and  metaphorical, 
they  abound  in  allusions  to  material  objects,  particularly  such 
as  are  most  striking  in  a  wild  and  solitary  life.  An  Indian 
chief,  in  an  ordinary  harangue  to  his  tribe,  uses  more  meta- 
phors than  a  European  w^ould  employ  in  an  epic  poem. 

As  a  language  progresses  in  refinement,  precision  is  more  regarded, 
and  there  is  a  tendency  to  give  every  object  a  distinct  name  of  its  own. 
Still,  figurative  words  continue  to  occupy  a  considerable  place.  Wo 
find,  on  examination,  that,  while  there  are  some  which,  by  reason  of  fre- 
quent use,  have  come  to  be  regarded  as  purely  literal  expressions,  such 
as  a  clear  head,  a  hard  Iicart,  and  the  like ;  there  are  many  others  which, 
in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  retain  their  figurative  character  and  impart 
to  style  the  peculiar  effect  described  above.  As  examples,  wc  may  point 
to  such  phrases  as  the  following:  *^ to  enter  upo7i  a.  subject,''^  ^^ to  folloio 
out  an  argument,"  "  to  stir  up  strife,"  "  to  move  the  feelings,"  &c.  In  the 
use  of  such  expressions,  the  correct  writer  will  always  carry  out  the  fig- 
ure ;  that  is,  will  regard  the  allusion  on  which  it  is  based,  and  introduce 
in  the  same  connection  nothing  inconsistent  therewith.  One  may,  for 
instance,  "  be  sheltered  under  the  patronage  of  a  great  man  " ;  but  it 
would  be  wrong  to  say,  "  sheltered  under  the  mask  of  dissimulation," — 
for  a  mask  does  not  shelter,  but  conceals. 

§322.    Advantages.  —  Tlie  advantages  which  accrue^ 
from  the  use  of  figures  are  as  follows  : — 

did  these  causes  operate  with  special  force  ?    Why  ?    In  what  languages  do  they 
also  operate  strongly  ?    What  tongues  afford  striking  illustrations  of  this  fact? 
What  is  the  character  of  these  Indian  tongues  ?    As  a  language  progresses  in  rt 
fincment,  what  tendency  prevails  ?    What  follows,  as  n^gards  figurative  cxpn  - 
pions  ?    What  do  we  find,  in  process  of  time,  with  respect  to  them  ?    In  the  ut-o 
of  figurative  expressions,  what  must  the  writer  be  careful  to  do  ?  Illastrate  this. 


FIGUEATIVE   LANGUAGE.  243 

I.  They  enrich  language  by  increasmg  its  facilities  of 
expression.  By  their  means,  words  and  phrases  are  multi- 
pHed,  so  that  all  kinds  of  ideas,  the  minutest  differences, 
and  the  nicest  shades  of  thought,  can  be  distinctly  and  ac- 
curately expressed. 

IL  They  dignify  style.  Words  and  phrases  to  which 
the  ear  is  accustomed  are  often  too  colloquial  and  familiar 
to  be  employed  in  connection  with  elevated  subjects.  When 
treating  of  the  latter,  we  should  be  greatly  at  a  loss  were  it 
not  for  figures.  Properly  used,  they  have  the  same  effect  on 
language  that  is  produced  by  the  rich  and  splendid  dress  of  a 
person  of  rank ;  that  is,  by  imparting  a  general  air  of  magnifi- 
cence, they  exact  admiration  and  respect.  Assistance  of  this 
kind  is  often  necessary  in  prose ;  in  poetry,  it  is  indispensable. 

To  say  the  sun  rises,  for  instance,  is  trite,  and  fails  to  awaken  any 
pleasure  in  the  mind ;  but  the  same  thought  is  pleasing  in  the  highest 
degree,  as  figuratively  expressed  by  Thomson : — 

"  But  yonder  comes  the  powerful  king  of  day, 
Eejoicing  in  the  East." 

So,  what  a  contrast  is  presented  by  the  plain  proposition,  "  all  men  are 
subject  alike  to  death,"  and  the  same  sentiment  as  expressed  by  Horace : — 

"With  equal  pace,  impartial  Fate 
Knocks  at  the  palace  and  the  cottage  gate." 

in.  They  bring  before  the  mind  two  objects  simulta- 
neously yet  without  confusion.  We  see  one  thing  in  an- 
other, and  this  is  always  a  source  of  pleasure.  In  nothing 
does  the  mind  more  gladly  employ  itself  than  in  detecting 
and  tracing  resemblances. 

When,  for  example,  for  youth  we  substitute  the  morning  of  life,  the 
fancy  is  entertained  with  two  ideas  at  once, — the  early  period  of  exist- 
ence, and  the  opening  of  the  day ;  each  of  which  has  its  own  associa- 
tions, and  awakens  its  peculiar  train  of  images.    The  fancy  is  thus  ex- 

§  322.  What  is  the  first  advantage  resulting  from  the  use  of  figures  ?  What, 
the  second  ?  When  wo  are  treating  of  elevated  subjects,  what  words  must  not  he 
used?  In  such  cases,  to  what  must  we  have  recourse  ?  To  what  is  the  eff'ect  of 
figurative  language  compared  ?  In  what  department  of  composition  is  assistance 
of  this  kind  indispensable  ?  Show,  by  means  of  two  examples,  the  dilTerenco  in 
effect  between  trite  and  figurative  language.  What  is  the  third  advantage  gained 


244  FIGURATIVE   LANGUAGE. 

cited  in  a  two-fold  degree ;  and  this  double  pleasure  is  enhanced  not  a 
little  by  the  evident  resemblance  between  the  objects  compared. 

IV.  Again,  as  already  seen,  figures  frequently  convey 
the  meaning  more  clearly  and  forcibly  than  plain  language. 
This  is  particularly  true  in  the  case  of  abstract  conceptions, 
which,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  they  represent  as  sensible 
objects,  surrounding  them  with  such  circumstances  as  enable 
the  mind  fully  to  comprehend  them.  A  well-chosen  figure, 
indeed,  not  unfrequently,  with  the  force  of  an  argument, 
carries  conviction  to  the  mind  of  the  hearer ;  as  in  the  fol- 
lowing illustration  from  Young :  "  When  we  dip  too  deep 
in  pleasure,  we  always  stir  a  sediment  that  renders  it  im- 
pure and  noxious." 

§  323.  Rules. — In  the  use  of  figures,  rules  are  of  ser- 
vice, as  they  are  in  every  other  department  of  composition. 
There  is  no  force  in  the  argument  that  they  are  unnecessary, 
because  people  who  have  never  heard  of  a  rule  use  figures 
properly  every  day. 

We  constantly  meet  with  persons  who  sing  agreeably  and  correctly 
without  knowing  a  note  of  the  gamut ;  is  it,  therefore,  improper  to  reduce 
the  notes  to  a  scale,  or  unnecessary  for  a  musician  to  study  the  principles 
of  his  art  ?  The  ornaments  of  composition  are  certainly  as  capable  of 
improvement  as  the  ear  or  the  voice ;  and  the  only  means  of  insuring 
this  improvement  are  careful  study  of  the  various  rules  founded  on  na- 
ture  and  experience,  and  constant  practice  with  reference  to  the  prin- 
ciples they  establish. 

§  324.  Use. — ^Though  the  advantages  arising  from  the 
use  of  figurative  language  have  been  dwelt  on  at  some 
length,  it  must  not  be  supposed,  either  that  its  frequent  use 
is  absolutely  essential  to  beauty  of  composition,  or  that  fig- 
ures alone,  without  other  merits,  can  constitute  such  beauty. 

by  tlie  U8C  of  figures?  Explain  and  illustrate  tills  point.  Fourthly,  how  do  fli:- 
nrcs  frequently  convey  a  writer's  meaning  ?  In  the  case  of  what  is  this  particu- 
larly true  ?  To  what  is  a  well-chosen  fl<:;ure  often  equivalent  in  force  ?  Give  au 
illustration  from  Young. 

§  323.  What  is  said  of  rules  for  the  use  of  figures?  What  argument  is  urged 
against  them  ?    Expose  the  fallacy  of  this  argument. 

§  324.  What  must  not  be  supposed  with  respect  to  figurative  language  ?  Which 
is  more  Important,— the  thought  or  Itu  dress  ? 


EXERCISES   ON   FIGUEATltE  LAKGIJAGE.  245 

As  the  body  is  more  important  than  the  dress,  so  the  thought 
is  of  more  moment  than  the  mode  of  expressing  it.  No  figviie 
can  render  a  cold  or  empty  composition  interesting ;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  if  a  sentence  is  sublime  or  pathetic,  it 
can  support  itself  without  borrowed  assistance. 


LESSON  XLIX. 

EXERCISES   ON   FIGURATIVE  LANGUAGE. 

EXERCISE   I. 
In  the  following  passages,  change  the  figurative  to  plain 
language : — 

JlxAMPLE.  Figurative. — The  king  of  terrors. 

The  waves  are  asleep  on  the  bosom  of  ocean. 
Plain. — Death. 

The  ocean  is  calm. 

1.  The  morning  of  life  ; — the  veil  of  night; — a /^ry  temper; — a  deep 
thinker ; — a  light  disposition  ; — a  cold  heart ; — a  wa7'm  friend ; — an  at- 
tack of  sickness ; — a  thin  audience ; — high  hopes  ; — a  hard  lot,  2.  Athens 
was  now  at  the  pinnacle  of  glory.  3.  The  sea  swallows  many  a  vessel. 
4.  Beside  the  warrior  slept  his  bow.  5.  Guilt  is  wedded  to  miserj'.  6. 
Homer's  genius  soars  higher  than  Virgil's.  7.  Some  great  men  are  noted 
for  the  roughness  of  their  behavior.  8.  Time  had  left  his  footprints  on 
her  brow.  9.  The  breath  of  spring  infuses  new  life  into  the  vegetable 
world.  10.  The  sanguine  man  is  sometimes  rudely  wakened  from  his 
dreams.  11.  Even  at  imaginary  woes  the  heart  will  sometimes  ac7tc.  12. 
Abstinence  is  the  only  talisman  against  disease.  13.  This  lamentation 
touched  his  heart.     14.  We  should  not  be  cast  down  by  light  afflictions. 

15.  "  Adversity's  cold  frosts  ^ill  soon  be  o'er ; 

It  heralds  biixihter  days :— the  joyous  Spring 
Is  cradled  on  the  Winter^s  icy  breast^ 
And  yet  comes  flitshed  in  beauty." 

16.  "  Vice  is  a  monster  of  so  frightful  mioi, 

As  to  be  hated  needs  but  to  be  seen  ; 
Yet  seen  too  oft,  familiar  with  her  face., 
We  first  endure,  thcn^ji^y,  then  embi^aee,'''' 

EXERCISE    II. 
In  each  of  the  following  passages,  introduce  figurative 
language  without  altering  the  sense.     Punctuate  the  sen- 
tences so  formed,  and  be  careful  to  carry  out  the  figure 


246  FIGURES   OF  RHETOEIC. 

properly.     The  student  may  form  figures  of  his  own,  or  may 
employ  those  suggested  by  the  words  in  parentheses. 

Example,  riain. — The  uncompassionate  man  has  no  smpathy  for 
the  unfortunate. 
Figurative. — The  hard-hearted  man  turns  a  deaf  ear  to  the 
unfortunate. 

1,  The  mind  should  be  kept  uneontaminated  {weeds,  garden).  2.  Let 
us  be  virtuous,  and  not  yield  to  the  temptations  of  pleasure  {jmth,  listen, 
voice),  r^.  With  the  ancient  Stoics  it  was  a  principle  never  to  indulge 
their  appetites  unduly  (overstep).  4.  Suspicion  is  a  source  of  great  un- 
happiness  (poison).  5.  Providence  has  wisely  ordained  that  we  shall 
not  know  the  future  (sealed).  6.  Calumnious  reports  are  often  circulated 
about  those  whose  lives  afford  the  least  reason  for  them  (aim,  arrows). 
'7.  He  is  dying  (tide).  8.  Fortune,  though  it  may  involve  us  in  temporal 
difficulties,  can  not  make  us  permanently  unhappy,  if  we  do  no  evil.  9. 
Time  makes  many  changes.  10.  The  young  man,  on  leaving  college, 
should  pause  a  moment  for  serious  thought  before  engaging  in  active 
Yii'ii  (launching).  11.  We  should  constantly  have  regard  to  the  require- 
ments of  truth  and  justice.  12.  We  meet  with  few  utterly  stupid  per- 
sons ;  with  still  fewer  noble  geniuses :  the  generality  of  mankind  are  be- 
tween the  two  extremes.  13.  Often,  when  apparently  gay,  the  heart  is 
sad.  14.  Seldom  do  the  old  form  very  ardent  friendships.  15.  Our 
worst  enemies  arc  our  own  evil  passions.  16.  The  rising  sun  shines  on 
the  tops  of  the  mountains  (gilds).  11.  The  lightning  is  seen  first  on  one 
peak  and  then  on  another  (leaps).    18.  He  is  in  love. 


LESSON    L. 

FIGURES   OP  RHETORIC. 

§  325.  Figures  of  rhetoric  are  intentional  deviations 
from  the  ordinary  application  of  words.  They  are  constant- 
ly occurring  in  every  department  of  composition,  and  are  a 
source  of  life  and  beauty  to  style.  Rhetoricians  have  de- 
voted much  attention  to  defining,  analyzing,  and  classifjang 
them ;  and,  by  making  slight  shades  of  difference  sufficient 
ground  for  the  formation  of  new  classes,  have  succeeded  in 
enumerating  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty.  Such  mi- 
nuteness is  of  no  practical  use ;  and  we  shall  limit  our  con- 

§  325.  What  arc  figures  of  rhetoric  ?    How  many  have  been  enumerated  by 
rhetoricians  ?    How  have  they  succeeded  in  making  bo  many  ?    How  many  are 


FiaUEES   OP  EHETOEIO.  24:7 

sideration  to  the  sixteen  leading  figures,  which  embrace 
many  of  the  subdivisions  above  alluded  to,  and  are  all  that 
it  is  necessary  to  understand  or  of  advantage  to  employ. 

The  sixteen  principal  figures  are  Sim'-i-le,  Met'-a-phor, 
Al'-le-go-ry,  Me-ton'-y-my,  Sy-nec'-do-che,  Hy-per'-bo-le,  Vi'- 
sion,  A-pos'-tro-phe,  Per-son-i-fi-ca'-tion,  In-ter-ro-ga'-tion,  Ex- 
cla-ma'-tion,  An-tith'-e-sis,  Cli'-max,  I'-ro-ny,  A-poph'-a-sis, 
and  On-o-mat-o-poe'-ia. 

Several  of  these  figures  are  called  tropes  (a  term  derived  from  the 
Greek,  meaning  turm\  because  the  word  is  turned^  as  it  were,  from  its 
ordinary  application. 

§  326.  Simile  is  the  comparison  of  one  object  to  another, 
and  is  generally  denoted  by  like,  as,  or  so  ;  as,  "  He  shall 
be  like  a  tree  planted  by  the  rivers  of  water." — "  Thy  smile 
is  as  the  dawn  of  the  vernal  day." 

Comparisons  are  sometimes  made  without  any  formal  term  to  denote 
them ;  as,  "  Too  much  indulgence  does  not  strengthen  the  mind  of  the 
young ;  plants  raised  with  tenderness  are  seldom  strong."  Here  a  com- 
parison is  made  just  as  much  as  if  the  word  as  were  introduced  before 
plants.  So,  Chaucer  employs  a  simile  in  the  following  beautiful  line, 
without  directly  indicating  it : — 

"  Up  rose  the  Bun,  and  up  rose  Emilie." 

All  comparisons  may  be  divided,  according  to  the  purpose  for  which 
they  are  employed,  into  two  classes,  known  as  Explanatory  Similes  and 
EmbelUshing  Similes.  The  former  may  be  used  without  impropriety 
even  in  abstruse  philosophical  compositions,  which,  indeed,  they  often 
illustrate  in  the  happiest  manner.  One  of  this  class  is  successfully  em- 
ployed by  Harris,  to  explain  the  distinction  between  the  powers  of  sense 
and  those  of  imagination.  "  As  wax  would  not  be  adequate  to  the  pur- 
pose of  signature,  if  it  had  not  the  power  to  retain  as  well  as  to  receive 
the  impression ;  the  same  holds  of  the  soul,  with  respect  to  sense  and 
imagmation.  Sense  is  its  receptive  power;  imagination  its  retentive. 
Had  it  sense  without  imagination,  it  would  not  be  as  wax,  but  as  water, 
where,  though  all  impressions  be  instantly  made,  yet  as  soon  as  they  are 

here  coneidered  ?  Name  them.  What  are  several  of  these  figures  called  ?  What 
does  the  word  tropes  mean  ? 

§  326.  What  is  Shiiile  ?  By  what  words  is  it  indicated?  How  are  compari- 
Bons  sometimes  made?  Give  an  example.  Into  what  two  classes  are  Similes 
AlYided  ?   Define  each,  and  give  examples. 


248  FIGUEES   OF  EHETOEIC. 

made,  they  are  instantly  lost."  The  Embellishing  Simile,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  introduced,  not  for  the  sake  of  explanation  or  instruction,  but 
simply  to  beautify  the  style.  Such,  for  instance,  is  the  effect  of  the  fol- 
lowing from  Ossian  : — "  Pleasant  are  the  words  of  the  song,  said  Cuchul- 
lin,  and  lovely  are  the  tales  of  other  times.  They  are  like  the  calm 
dew  of  the  morning  on  the  hill  of  roes,  when  the  sun  is  faint  on  its  side, 
and  the  lake  is  settled  and  blue  in  the  vale." 

§  327.  Metaphor  indicates  the  resemblance  of  two  ob- 
jects by  applying  the  name,  attribute,  or  act  of  one  directly 
to  the  other ;  as,  "  He  shall  be  a  tree  planted  by  the  rivers 
of  water." 

Metaphor  is  the  commonest  of  all  the  figures.  It  assumes  a  variety 
of  forms,  under  some  of  which  it  is  constantly  appearing  in  composition. 
Sometimes  there  is  no  formal  comparison  ;  but,  as  was  instanced  in  the 
last  lesson,  an  act  is  assigned  to  an  object,  which,  literally,  it  is  incapa- 
ble of  performing,  to  represent  in  a  lively  manner  some  act  which  it  c:m 
perform ;  as,  "  Wild  fancies  gamholled  unhHdled  through  his  brain."  We 
may  properly  apply  the  term  metapliorical  to  words  used  in  this  figurative 
sense,  like  many  of  those  in  the  last  Exercise. 

§  328.  Allegory  is  the  narration  of  fictitious  events, 
whereby  it  is  sought  to  convey  or  illustrate  important 
truths.  Thus,  in  Psalm  Ixxx.,  the  Jewish  nation  is  repre- 
sented under  the  symbol  of  a  vine : — "  Tliou  hast  brought  a 
vine  out  of  Egypt:  thou  hast  cast  out  the  heathen,  and 
planted  it.  Thou  prcparedst  room  before  it,  and  didst  cause 
it  to  take  deep  root,  and  it  filled  the  land.  The  hills  were 
covered  with  the  shadow  of  it,  and  the  boughs  thereof  were 
hke  the  goodly  cedars." 

It  will  be  seen  that  an  Allegory  is  a  combination  of  kindred  meta- 
phors so  connected  in  sense  as  to  form  a  kind  of  story.  The  parables  of 
Scripture,  as  well  as  fables  that  point  a  moral,  are  varieties  of  this  figure. 
Sometimes  an  Allegory  is  so  extended  as  to  fill  a  volume ;  as  in  the  case 
of  Bunyan's  "  Pilgrim's  Progress  ". 

§  329.  Metonymy  is  the  exchange  of  names  between 

I  327.  Wliat  does  Metaphor  indicate  ?  What  is  paid  of  the  forms  under  wlilth 
it  appears?  IIow  is  it  sometimes  used  in  conncctiou  with  a  single  object? 
Wliat  term  may  bo  properly  applied  to  words  u»ed  flguratively  ? 

§  328.  What  is  Allegory  ?  Of  what  is  it  a  combination  ?  What  are  mentioned 
as  yarictics  of  this  figure  ?    How  far  Is  an  Allegory  sometimcB  extended  ? 

§  329.  What  is  Metonymy  ?    On  what  is  tliis  fl;;urc  not  founded  ?   Mention  the 


J^IGtJRES   OF  lillEtOEIO.  240 

things  related.  It  is  founded,  not  on  resemblance,  but  on 
the  relation  of,  1.  Cause  and  effect ;  as,  "  They  have  Moses 
and  the  prophets  ",  i.  e.,  their  writings  ;  "  Gray  hairs  should 
be  respected",  i.  e.,  old  age.  2.  Progenitor  and  posterity; 
as,  "Hear,  O  IsraeV,  i.  e.,  descendants  of  Israel.  3.  Sub- 
ject and  attribute ;  as,  "  Youth  and  beauty  shall  be  laid  in 
dust ",  i.  e.,  the  young  and  beautiful.  4.  Place  and  inhab- 
itant ;  as,  "  What  land  is  so  barbarous  as  to  allow  this  in- 
justice ? "  i.  e.,  what  people.  5.  Container  and  thing  con- 
tained ;  as,  "  Our  ships  next  opened  a  fire  ",  i.  e.,  our  sailors. 
6.  Sign  and  thing  signified ;  as,  "  The  sceptre  shall  not  de- 
part from  Judali",  i.  e.,  hingly  power.  7.  Material  and 
thing  made  from  it ;  as,  "  His  steel  gleamed  on  high  ",  i.  e., 
his  sword. 

§  330.  Synecdoche  is  using  the  name  of  a  part  for  that 
of  the  whole,  the  name  of  the  whole  for  that  of  a  part,  or  a 
definite  number  for  an  indefinite :  as,  "  The  sea  is  covered 
with  sails ",  i.  e.,  ships ;  "Our  hero  was  gray,  but  not  from 
age  ",  i.  e.,  his  hair  was  gray ;  "  Ten  thousand  were  on  his 
right  hand  ",  i.  e.,  a  great  number. 

§  331.  Hyperbole  is  the  exaggeration  of  attributes,  or 
the  assigning  to  a  subject  of  a  wonderful  and  impossible 
act  as  the  result  of  ardent  emotion ;  as,  "  They  [Saul  and 
Jonathan]  were  swifter  than  eagles ,  they  were  stronger  than 
lions.^^ — "  And  trembling  Tiber  dived  beneath  his  bed.^^ 

Hyperbolical  expressions  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  common  con- 
versation ;  we  often  say,  as  cold  as  ice,  as  hot  asfre,  as  white  as  snow,  &c., 
in  all  which  phrases  the  quality  is  exaggerated  beyond  the  bounds  of 
truth.  Their  frequency  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  imagination,  which  ah 
ways  takes  pleasure  in  magnifying  the  objects  before  it.  Languages  are, 
therefore,  more  or  less  hyperbolical,  according  to  the  liveliness  of  this 

various  relations  subsisting  between  objects  whose  names  are  exchanged,  and 
illustrate  each. 

§  330.  What  is  Synecdoche  ? 

§331.  What  is  Hyperbole?  Where  docs  this  figure  frequently  occur?  Givo 
fioine  common  colloquial  hyperbolical  expressions.  To  what  is  their  frequency 
attributable  ?  According;  to  what  is  a  language  found  to  be  more  or  less  hyper' 
Iwlical  ?    By  whom  is  Hyperbole  most  frequently  used  ? 


250  FIGURES   OF  EHETORIC. 

faculty  in  those  who  speak  them.  Ilence  the  Orientals  indulge  in  Hy- 
perbole more  freely  than  Europeans,  and  the  young  use  it  to  a  much 
greater  extent  than  those  of  maturer  years. 

§  332.  Vision,  also  called  Imagery,  is  the  representa- 
tion of  past  events,  or  imaginary  objects  and  scenes,  as  act- 
ually present  to  the  senses ;  as, "  Caesar  leaisea  Gaul,  crosses 
the  Rubicon,  and  enters  Italy ",  i.  e.,  left  Gaul,  crossed  the 
Rubicon,  &c. — "  They  rally,  they  bleed,  for  theur  kingdom  and 
crown."  It  will  be  seen  from  the  examples  that  this  figure 
often  consists  in  substituting  the  present  tense  for  the  past. 

§  333.  Apostrophe  is  a  turning  from  the  regular  course 
of  the  subject,  into  an  invocation  or  address ;  as,  "  Death  is 
swallowed  up  in  victory.  O  death,  where  is  thy  sting  ?  O 
grave,  where  is  thy  victory  ?  " 

§  334.  Personification,  or  Pros-o-po-pod-ia,  is  the  at- 
tributing of  sex,  life,  or  action  to  an  inanimate  object ;  or  the 
ascribing  of  intelligence  and  personality  to  an  inferior  crea- 
ture ;  as,  "  The  Sea  saw  it  sLndfied^ — "  The  Worm,  aware 
of  his  intent,  harangued  him  thus." 

§  335.  Interrogation  is  the  asking  of  questions,  not  for 
the  purpose  of  expressing  doubt  or  obtaining  information, 
but  in  order  to  assert  strongly  the  reverse  of  what  is  asked ; 
as,  "  Doth  God  pervert  judgment  ?  or  doth  the  Almighty 
pervert  justice  ?  "  This  figure  imparts  animation  to  style. 
It  is  constantly  employed  in  the  Book  of  Job. 

§  336.  Exclamation  is  the  expression  of  some  strong 
emotion  of  the  mind ;  as,  "  Oh !  the  depth  of  the  riches  both 
of  the  wisdom  and  the  knowledge  of  God  I  "  This  figure 
employs  exclamatory  sentences  and  vocative  clauses. 

§  337.  Antithesis  is  the  placing  of  opposites  in  juxta- 
position, for  the  purpose  of  heightening  their  effect  by  con- 

§  883.  What  is  YiBion  Bometimes  called  ?    Define  this  figure.    What  tcni« 
does  it  often  require  ? 

§  833.  What  is  Apostropbo  ? 

§  334.  What  is  Pcrsouiflcation  ? 

§  335.  What  is  Interrogation  ?    Where  does  it  constantly  occur  t 

§  336.  Wliat  is  Exclamation  ?    What  does  this  figure  employ  ? 

§  387.  What  la  AntiUiceis  ?    Where  is  it  used  with  great  effect  f 


FIGURES  OF  KHETOKIC.  251 

trast ;  as,  "  A  good  man  obtaineth  favor  of  the  Lord ;  but  a 
man  of  wicked  devices  will  He  condemn." — "  Though  grave, 
yet  trifling  ;  zealous,  yet  untrueP  This  figure  is  used  with 
great  effect  in  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  x.-xv.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  effective  ornaments  that  can  be  employed  in  composi- 
tion. "  To  extirpate  antithesis  from  literature  altogether," 
says  the  author  of  Lacon,  "would  be  to  destroy  at  one 
stroke  about  eight-tenths  of  all  the  wit,  ancient  and  modem, 
now  existing  in  the  world." 

§  338.  Climax  is  the  arrangement  of  a  succession  of 
words,  clauses,  members,  or  sentences,  in  such  a  way  that 
the  weakest  may  stand  first,  and  that  each  in  turn,  to  the 
end  of  the  sentence,  may  rise  in  importance,  and  make  a 
deeper  impression  on  the  mind  than  that  which  preceded  it ; 
as,  "  Who  shall  separate  us  from  the  love  of  Christ  ?  Shall 
tribulation,  or  distress,  ov  persecution,  or  famine,  or  naked- 
ness, ov peril,  or  sword?  " 

This  term  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word  klimax,  "  a  ladder".  The 
definition  given  above  has  reference  to  the  Climax  of  sense.  We  have 
also  a  Climax  of  sound,  which  consists  in  arranging  a  series  of  words  or 
clauses  according  to  their  length,  that  is,  so  that  the  shortest  may  come 
first;  as,  " He  was  a  great,  noble,  disinterested  man ;  "  not,  "He  was  a 
disinterested,  noble,  great  man."  A  fine  effect  is  produced  by  combin- 
ing the  Climax  of  sense  with  that  of  sound.  Cicero  understood  this 
fact,  and,  in  his  orations,  constantly  availed  himself  of  it,  with  the 
greatest  success. 

The  faulty  arrangement  of  words  and  clauses  in  the  opposite  order  to 
that  prescribed  by  this  figure,  that  is,  so  that  they  successively  decrease 
in  importance,  is  known  as  Anti-climax.  It  is  well  illustrated  in  the  fol- 
lowing couplet : — 

"  And  thou,  Dalhousie,  thou  great  god  of  war, 
Lieutenant-colonel  to  the  earl  of  Mar  1 " 

The  term  Climax  is  also  applied  by  some  to  sentences  in  which,  for 
the  sake  of  emphasis,  an  expression  occurring  in  one  member  is  repeated 

§  338.  What  is  Climax  ?  From  what  is  this  term  derived  ?  What  is  meant  by 
a  Climax  of  sound  ?  How  is  a  fine  effect  produced  ?  Who  has  availed  himself  of 
this  fact  ?  What  is  Anti-climax  ?  Cite  a  couplet  in  point.  To  what  sentences 
is  the  term  Climax  also  applied?  Kepeat  the  illustration  quoted  from  Pope. 
What  other  name  is  given  to  this  variety  of  Climax  ? 


252  FiGtJBES  OF  UliETOEtC. 

in  another ;  as,  "  When  we  have  practised  good  actions  a  while,  they  be- 
come easy ;  and,  when  they  are  easy,  we  begin  to  take  pleasure  in  them ; 
and,  when  they  please  us,  we  do  them  frequently  ;  and,  by  frequency  of 
acts,  they  grow  into  a  habit."  So,  Pope,  to  heighten  compassion  for  the 
fate  of  an  unfortunate  lady,  repeats  the  idea  that  she  lacked  friendly 
sympathy  in  her  distress  : — 

*'  By  foreign  hands  thy  dying  eyes  were  closed, 
By  foreign  hands  thy  decent  limbs  composed ; 
By  foreign  hands  thy  humble  grave  adorned, 
By  strangers  honored  and  by  strangers  mourned." 

Some  make  this  an  independent  figure,  and  style  it  licpetition. 

§  339.  Irony  is  a  figure  by  which  is  expressed  directly 
the  opposite  of  what  it  is  intended  shall  be  understood  ;  as 
when  Elijah  said  to  the  pnests  of  Baal,  who  were  trying  to 
induce  their  false  god  to  manifest  himself  miraculously, 
"  Cry  aloud,  for  he  is  a  god,"  &c.  This  figure  has  been  al- 
ready considered  under  the  head  of  Ridicule. 

§  340.  Apophasis^  Paralqms,  or  Omission^  is  the  pre- 
tended suppression  of  what  one  is  all  the  time  actually  men- 
tioning ;  as, "  I  say  nothing  of  the  notorious  profligacy  of  his 
character ;  nothing  of  the  reckless  extravagance  with  which 
he  has  wasted  an  ample  fortune ;  nothing  of  the  disgusting 
intemperance  which  has  sometimes  caused  him  to  reel  in 
our  streets ; — but  I  aver  that  he  has  exhibited  neither 
probity  nor  abiUty  in  the  important  office  which  he  holds." 

§  341.  Onomatopoeia  is  the  use  of  a  word  or  phrase 
formed  to  imitate  the  sound  of  the  tiling  signified ;  as  when 
we  say,  rat  tat  tat^  to  denote  a  knocking  at  the  door ;  how 
woio^  to  express  the  barking  of  a  dog ;  or,  buzz^  buzz^  to  in- 
dicate the  noise  made  by  bees. 

§889.  What  is  Irony? 

§  »U).  What  other  names  has  Apophasis  ?    Define  this  figurfc 

S  841.  What  is  Onomatopoeia  ?    Exemplify  it. 


EXERCISE  ON  FIGURES.  253 

LESSON  LI. 

EXERCISE     ON     FIGURES. 

Point  out  the  figures  that  occur  in  the  following  pas- 
sages, and  state  to  which  of  the  four  classes  they  belong. 
There  may  be  more  than  one  in  the  same  sentence. 

1.  They  that  are  of  a  fro  ward  heart  are  abomination  to  the  Lord ; 
but  such  as  are  upright  in  their  way  are  His  delight.  2.  As  a  jewel  of 
gold  in  a  swine's  snout,  so  is  a  fair  woman  which  is  without  discretion. 
3.  For  I  am  persuaded,  that  neither  death,  nor  life,  nor  angels,  nor  prin- 
cipalities, nor  powers,  nor  things  present,  nor  things  to  come,  nor  height, 
nor  depth,  nor  any  other  creature,  shall  be  able  to  separate  us  from  the 
love  of  God,  which  is  in  Christ  Jesus  our  Lord,  4.  The  depth  saith.  It 
is  not  in  me :  and  the  sea  saith,  It  is  not  with  me.  5.  Weep  on  the 
rocks  of  roaring  winds,  0  maid  of  Inistore !  Bend  thy  fair  head  over 
the  waves,  thou  loveUer  than  the  ghost  of  the  hills,  when  it  moves  on 
the  sunbeam,  at  noon,  over  the  silence  of  Morven.  He  is  fallen :  thy 
youth  is  low  !  6.  He  smote  the  city.  1.  There  are  a  million  truths  that 
men  are  not  concerned  to  know.  8.  On  this  side,  modesty  is  engaged  ; 
on  that,  impudence :  on  this,  chastity ;  on  that,  lewdness  :  on  this,  in- 
tegrity ;  on  that,  fraud :  on  this,  piety ;  on  that,  profaneness :  on  this, 
constancy ;  on  that,  fickleness :  on  this,  honor ;  on  that,  baseness  :  on 
this,  moderation ;  on  that,  unbridled  passion.  9.  For  all  the  land  which 
thou  seest,  to  thee  will  I  give  it,  and  to  thy  seed  forever.  And  I  will 
make  thy  seed  as  the  dust  of  the  earth  ;  so  that,  if  a  man  can  number  the 
dust  of  the  earth,  then  shall  thy  seed  also  be  numbered.  10.  Ignorance 
is  a  blank  sheet,  on  which  we  may  write  ;  but  error  is  a  scribbled  one, 
from  which  we  must  first  erase.  11.  Horatius  was  once  a  very  promising 
young  gentleman ;  but  in  process  of  time  he  became  so  addicted  to  gam- 
ing, not  to  mention  his  drunkenness  and  debauchery,  that  he  soon  ex- 
hausted his  estate,  and  ruined  his  constitution.  12.  Hast  thou  eyes  of 
flesh  ?  or  seest  thou  as  man  seeth  ?  Are  thy  days  as  the  days  of  man  ? 
Are  thy  years  as  man's  days  ?  13.  Streaming  grief  his  faded  cheek  be- 
dewed. 14.  My  heart  is  turned  to  stone:  I  strike  it,  and  it  hurts  my 
hand.  15.  Friendship  is  no  plant  of  hasty  growth.  16.  Cool  age  ad- 
vances, venerably  wise.  17.  Oh!  that  ye  would  altogether  hold  your 
peace ;  and  it  should  be  your  wisdom.  18.  Whoso  loveth  instruction 
loveth  knowledge ;  but  he  that  hateth  reproof  is  brutish.  19.  His  arm 
Boon  cleared  the  field. 

20.  Some  lead  a  life  unblamable  and  just, 
Their  own  dear  virtue  their  unshaken  trust. 

21.  The  combat  thickens.    On,  ve  brave, 
Who  rush  to  glory  or  the  grave  1 

22.  Oh  1  unexpected  stroke,  worse  than  of  death  1 
Must  I  thus  leave  thee,  Paradise !  thus  leave 
Thee,  native  soil,  these  happy  walks,  and  shade*, 
Fit  haunt  of  gods  1 


254:       RULES  FOB  THE  USE  OF  BHETORICAL  FIGURES. 

23.  O  books,  ye  monuments  of  mind,  concrete  wisdom  of  the  wisest ; 
Sweet  solaces  of  daily  life ;  proofs  and  results  of  immortality ; 
Trees  yielding  all  fruits,  whose  leaves  are  for  the  healing  of  the  natioui: ; 
Groves  of  knowledge,  where  all  may  eat,  nor  fear  a  flaming  6Word. 

34.  Earth  felt  the  wound ;  and  Nature  from  her  seat 
Sighing,  through  all  her  works,  gave  signs  of  woe 
That  all  was  lost. 

25.  How  slow  yon  tiny  vessel  ploughs  the  main  I 
Amid  the  heavy  billows  now  she  seems 

A  toiling  atom ;  then  from  wave  to  wave 
Leaps  madly,  by  the  tempest  lashed ;  or  reels, 
Hall  wrecked,  through  gulfs  profound. 

26.  Me  miserable  I  which  way  shall  I  fly 

Infinite  wrath,  and  infinite  despair  ?  • 

Which  way  I  fly  is  hell,  myself  am  hell, — 
And  in  the  lowest  depth,  a  lower  deep, 
Still  threatening  to  devour  me,  opens  wide, 
To  which  the  hell  I  suffer  seems  a  heaven. 

27.  The  earth 
Gave  si^s  of  gratulations,  and  each  hill. 
Joyous  the  birds  :  fresh  gales  and  gentle  airs 
Whispered  it  to  the  woods,  and  from  their  wings 
Flung  rose,  flung  odor  from  the  spicy  shrub, 
Disporting. 


Dash  along  1 
Slash  along  I 
Crash  along ! 
Flash  along  1  ' 


On !  on !  with  a  jump, 

And  a  bump, 

And  a  roll. 

Hies  the  flre-fiend  to  his  destined  goal ! 


LESSON     LII. 

RULES  FOR  THE   USE   OP  RHETORICAL  FIGURES. 

§  342.  For  a  practical  view  of  the  figures  defined  in 
Lesson  L.,  and  to  learn  under  what  circumstances  they  are 
most  effectively  introduced,  the  young  writer  is  recom- 
mended to  a  careful  and  critical  perusal  of  standard  authors. 
A  few  remarks,  however,  on  figures  in  general,  and  some 
brief  rules  respecting  the  use  of  the  most  important  ones, 
will  be  fomid  of  service, 

§  343.  In  the  first  place,  an  observation  already  made 
must  be  remembered,  that  composition  is  by  no  means  de- 
pendent on  figures  for  all,  or  even  the  greater  part,  of  its 
beauties  and  merits.     Examples  of  the  most  sublime  and 

§  342.  Where  is  the  student  referred  for  a  practical  view  of  figures  ? 

S  843.  What  observatiou  is  first  made  respecting  the  effect  of  figures  on  com- 


RULES   FOR  THE   USE   OF   KHETOKICAL  FIGURES.      255 

pathetic  writing  abound,  and  many  have  been  cited  above, 
in  which,  powerful  as  is  their  effect,  no  assistance  is  derived 
from  this  source.  Figures,  therefore,  though  valuable  as 
auxiharies,  should  not  be  the  chief  object  had  in  view.  If  a 
composition  is  destitute  of  striking  thoughts,  or  even  if  the 
style  is  objectionable,  all  the  figures  that  can  be  employed 
will  fail  to  render  it  agreeable.  They  may  dazzle  a  vulgar 
eye,  but  can  never  please  a  judicious  one. 

In  the  second  place,  to  be  beautiful,  figures  must  rise  nat- 
urally from  the  subject.  Dictated  by  imagination  or  passion, 
they  must  come  from  a  mind  warmed  by  the  object  it  would 
describe.  They  must  flow  in  the  same  train  as  the  current  of 
thought.  If  deliberately  sought  out,  and  fastened  on  where 
they  seem  to  fit,  with  the  express  design  of  embellishing, 
their  effect  will  be  dhectly  the  opposite  of  what  is  intended. 

Again,  even  when  imagination  prompts  and  the  subject 
naturally  gives  rise  to  figures,  they  should  not  be  used  to 
excess.  The  reader  may  be  surfeited  with  them;  and, 
when  they  recur  too  often,  they  are  apt  to  be  regarded  as 
evidence  of  a  superficial  mind  that  delights  in  show  rather 
than  in  sohd  merit. 

Lastly,  without  a  genius  for  figurative  language,  no  one 
should  attempt  it.  Imagination  is  derived  from  nature ;  we 
may  cultivate  it,  but  must  not  force  it.  We  may  prune  its 
redundancies,  correct  its  errors,  and  enlarge  its  sphere ;  but 
the  faculty  itself  we  can  not  create.  "We  should  therefore 
avoid  attempts  which  can  result  only  in  making  our  weak- 
ness apparent. 

With  these  general  principles  in  view,  we  proceed  to 
certain  rules  and  cautions  relating  to  simile,  metaphor,  and 
hyperbole,  the  commonest  ornaments  of  style. 

§  344.  Simile. 

position  ?  What  is  essential  to  the  heauty  of  figures  ?  When  they  are  deliber- 
ately sought  for,  what  is  their  effect  ?  What  is  said  of  using  them  to  excess, 
even  when  they  arise  naturally  from  the  subject?  What  writers  should  avoid 
attempts  at  figurative  language  ? 


250     RULES   FOR  THE   USE  OF  RHETORICAL  FIGURE^. 

I.  Objects  must  not  be  compared  to  things  of  the  same  kind,  that 
closely  resemble  them.  Much  of  the  pleasure  we  receive  from  this  figure 
arises  from  its  discovering  to  us  similitudes  where  at  first  glance  we 
would  not  expect  them.  When  Milton  compares  Satan's  appearance, 
after  his  fall,  to  that  of  the  sun  suffering  an  eclipse  and  terrifying  the 
nations  with  portentous  darkness,  we  are  struck  with  the  point  and  dig- 
nity of  the  simile.  But  when  he  likens  Eve's  bower  in  Paradise  to  the 
arbor  of  Pomona,  or  Eve  herself  to  a  wood-nymph,  we  receive  but  hftlo 
entertainment,  as  one  bower  and  one  beautiful  woman  must  obviously, 
in  many  respects,  resemble  another. 

II.  Still  less  should  similes  be  founded  on  faint  resemblances.  In 
this  case  they  neither  explain  nor  embellish,  and  instead  of  entertaining 
the  mind  distract  and  perplex  it.  Shakspeare,  bold  in  his  use  of  figures, 
rather  than  delicate  or  correct,  frequently  violates  this  rule.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  case  in  point : — 

"  Give  me  the  crown.— Hero,  cousin,  seize  the  crown: 
Here  on  this  side,  my  hand ;  on  that  side,  thine. 
Now  is  this  golden  crown  like  a  deep  well. 
That  owes  two  buckets,  fillin<?  one  another; 
The  emptier  ever  dancing  in  the  air. 
The  other  down,  unseen  and  AiU  of  water: 
That  backet  down,  and  full  of  tears,  am  I, 
Drinking  my  griefs,  whilst  yon  mount  up  on  high." 

III.  Trite  similes  are  by  all  means  to  be  avoided.  Among  these  may 
be  classed  the  comparison  of  a  hero  to  a  lion,  that  of  a  person  in  sorrow 
to  a  flower  drooping  its  head,  of  a  violent  passion  to  a  tempest,  of  a 
ruddy  check  to  a  rose,  of  a  fair  brow  to  alabaster, — which  have  been 
handed  down  from  one  generation  to  another,  and  are  still  in  great  favor 
with  second-rate  writers.  As  originally  used  by  those  who  took  them 
direct  from  nature,  they  were  beautiful ;  but  frequent  use  has  divested 
them  of  all  their  charm.  Indeed  this  is  one  criterion  by  which  the  true 
genius  may  be  distinguished  from  the  empty  imitator.  To  the  former, 
the  treasures  of  nature  are  open;  he  discerns  new  shapes  and  forms,  and 
points  of  resemblance  before  unobserved :  the  latter  nmst  humbly  follow 
in  the  train  of  those  more  gifted  than  himself.  Unable  to  originate  any 
new  comparison,  he  can  only  reexpross  the  inventions  of  others. 


S  844.  To  what  must  objects  not  be  compared  ?  From  what  does  mnch  of  the 
pleasure  wc  receive  from  the  use  of  simile  arise?  IlliistnUc  this  by  a  reference 
to  two  of  Milton's  pimilos.  What  is  said  of  similes  founded  on  faint  rt^semblanccs  ? 
Who  frequently  violaten  this  rule  ?  To  what  docs  he  make  one  of  his  characters 
compare  a  crown  ?  What  is  the  cflect  of  this  figure  ?  What  is  the  third  class 
of  Bimilcs  that  must  be  avoided  ?    Instance  some  of  these.    Show  the  diffvr- 


EtTLES   FOE   THE   USE   OF   RHETORICAL   FIGURES.      257 

IV.  Nothing  is  gained  by  comparing  objects  to  things  respecting 
which  little  is  known,  as  in  the  following  from  Cowley  : — 

"  It  gives  a  piteous  groan,  and  so  it  broke  ; 
In  vain  it  something  would  have  spoke  ; 
The  love  within  too  strong  for  'twas, 
Like 2)oison 2nit  into  a  Venice-glass.'''' 

Comparisons,  therefore,  founded  on  local  allusions  or  traditions,  on 
the  career  of  obscure  mythological  personages,  on  matters  strictly  be- 
longing to  science  or  philosophy,  or  on  any  thing  with  which  persons  of 
a  certain  trade  or  profession  only  are  conversant,  must  be  avoided.  To 
be  effective,  the  object  to  which  comparison  is  made  must  be  familiar  to 
the  reader, — one  of  which,  if  not  personally  known  to  him,  he  has  at 
least  a  well-defined  conception. 

V.  Similes  must  not  be  drawn  from  resemblances  to  low  or  trivial 
objects.  Figures  so  derived  degrade  style,  instead  of  adorning  it.  Bear 
witness  the  following : — 

"  As  wasps,  provoked  by  children  in  their  play, 
Pour  from  their  mansions  by  the  broad  highway, 
In  swarms  the  guiltless  traveller  engage. 
Whet  all  their  stings,  and  call  forth  all  their  rage : 
All  rise  in  arms,  and,  with  a  general  cry. 
Assert  their  waxen  domes,  and  buzzing  progeny: 
Thus  from  the  tents  the  fervent  legion  swarms, 
So  loud  their  clamors,  and  so  keen  their  arms."— Pope's  HoMEn. 

We  certainly  have  no  higher  idea  of  the  prowess  of  an  army  from  its 
being  said  to  resemble  a  swarm  of  wasps.  In  like  manner,  objects  should 
be  compared  to  things  that  possess  the  quality  in  which  the  resemblance 
lies  in  a  greater  degree  than  themselves.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  The  moon 
is  like  a  jewel  in  the  sky,"  the  simile  is  bad,  because  the  moon  sheds  more 
light  than  a  jewel,  and  should  not  therefore  be  compared  to  the  latter. 

VI.  So,  to  compare  low  or  trivial  objects  to  things  far  exceeding 
them  in  greatness  is  no  beauty,  but  constitutes  one  of  the  varieties  of 
burlesque.  This  is  exemplified  in  a  passage  from  the  Odyssey,  in  which 
the  click  of  a  lock  is  compared  to  the  roaring  of  a  bull : — 

"  Loud  as  a  bull  makes  hill  and  valley  ring. 
So  roared  the  lock  when  it  released  the  spring." 


encc  in  this  respect  between  the  tnie  genius  and  the  imitator.  In  the  fourth 
place,  to  what  must  objects  not  be  compared?  How  does  Cowley  violate  this 
rule?  What  comparisons  are  thus  exeluded?  Fifthly,  from  what  resem- 
blances must  similes  not  be  drawn  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  figures  thus  derived  ? 
In  the  illustration  cited  from  Homer,  to  what  ia  the  Grecian  host  likened  ?  What 
is  the  fault  in  comparing  the  moon  to  a  jewel  ?  Describe  and  illustrate  the  sixth 
class  of  faulty  similes.  What  emotions  do  not  admit  of  comparisons  ?  Show  how 
Shakepcare  violates  this  principle. 


258     EULE8   FOE  THE   USE  OF  KHETOBICAL   FIGUBES. 

VII.  Similes  are  out  of  place,  when  anger,  terror,  remorse,  or  despair, 
is  the  prevalent  passion.  Men  under  the  influence  of  such  emotions  arc 
not  likely  to  indulge  in  comparisons.  Shakspeare,  in  Henry  VI.,  grossly 
violates  this  principle,  when  he  makes  the  dying  Warwick  say, 

"  My  mangled  body  showB, 
My  blood,  my  want  of  strcni?th,  my  sick  heart  shows, 
That  I  must  yield  my  body  to  the  earth. 
And,  by  my  fall,  the  conquest  to  my  foe. 
Thus  yields  the  cedar  to  the  axe's  edge, 
Whose  arms  gave  shelter  to  the  princely  eagle ; 
Under  whose  shade  the  ramping  lion  slept ; 
Whose  top-branch  overpowered  Jove's  spreading  tree, 
And  kept  low  shrubs  from  winter's  powerful  wind." 

§  345.  Metaphor. 

I.  Metaphors  being  in  most  cases  similes  with  the  term  denoting  tho 
comparison  omitted,  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  last  section  for  the  latter 
figure  are  equally  applicable  to  the  former.  In  other  words,  we  must 
avoid  unmeaning,  far-fetched,  trite,  obscure,  degrading,  bombastic,  and 
unreasonable,  metaphors.  These  diflerent  faults  having  been  illustrated 
under  the  simile,  it  is  not  thought  necessary  to  give  further,  examples. 

II.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  metaphor  be  appropriate.  Thus,  the 
clergyman  who  prayed  that  God  would  be  "  a  rock  to  them  that  are  afar 
off  upon  the  sea  ",  used  a  very  inappropriate  figure ;  because,  as  rocks  in 
the  sea  are  a  source  of  great  danger  to  mariners,  he  was  in  reality  ask- 
ing for  the  destruction  of  those  for  whose  safety  he  intended  to  pray. 

III.  The  commonest  error  in  the  use  of  metaphors  is  the  blending  of 
figurative  with  plain  language  in  the  same  sentence ;  that  is,  the  con- 
struction of  a  period  in  such  a  way  that  a  part  must  be  interpreted  meta- 
phorically and  the  remainder  literally.  Thus  Pope,  in  his  translation  of 
Homer's  Odyssey  (the  error  is  not  found  in  the  original),  makes  Penel- 
ope say  with  reference  to  her  son, 

"  Now  from  my  fond  embrace  by  tempests  torn, 
Our  other  column  of  the  state  is  home, 
Nor  took  a  kind  adieu,  nor  sought  consent." 

In  the  second  line  she  calls  her  son  a  "  coJunni  of  the  state  ",  and  in 
the  third  speaks  of  his  taking  a  kind  adieu  and  seeking  consent.    Now,  as 


§  345.  What  Is  the  difference  between  similes  and  metaphors  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  rules  relating  to  tho  former  ?  Accordingly,  what  kind  of  metaphors  must 
be  avoided  ?  In  the  second  place,  what  quality  is  essential  to  the  correct  met- 
aphor ?  Give  an  example  of  the  inappropriate  use  of  this  figure.  What  is  tho 
commonest  error  in  the  use  of  metaphors  ?  Illustrate  this  from  Pope's  transla- 
tion of  tho  Odyssey,  and  show  the  error.    Give  another  couplet  from  Pope,  con- 


RULES  FOR  THE  USE   OF  RHETORICAL   FIGURES.     259 

eohcmns  can  not  very  well  take  kind  adieics  or  seek  consent,  there  is  an  in- 
consistency, and  the  metaphor  is  faulty.     The  poet  should  either  have 
avoided  likening  Telemachus  to  a  column,  or  else  should  not  have  at- 
tributed to  him  an  act  which  it  is  impossible  for  a  column  to  perform. 
So  Pope  elsewhere  says,  addressing  the  king, 

"  To  thee  the  world  its  present  homage  pays, 
The  harvest  early,  but  mature  the  praise." 

Here,  had  it  not  been  for  the  rhyme,  he  would  evidently  have  said,  "  The 
harvest  early,  but  mature  the  crojo."  He  would  thus  have  carried  out 
the  figure. 

IV.  Mixed  metaphors, — that  is,  the  use  of  two  different  figures  in  the 
same  period,  with  reference  to  the  same  object, — confound  the  imagina- 
tion, and  are  to  be  strictly  guarded  against.  Thus  Addison,  in  his  "  Let- 
ter from  Italy",  says, 

"  I  bridle  in  my  struggling  muse  with  pain, 
That  longs  to  launch  into  a  bolder  strain." 

He  first  makes  his  muse  a  horse  which  may  be  bridled,  then  a  ship  which 
may  be  launched.  How  can  it  be  both,  at  one  and  the  same  moment  ? 
IIow  can  being  bridled  prevent  it  from  launcMng_  ?  With  equal  impro- 
priety Shakspeare  uses  the  expression,  "  To  take  arms  against  a  sea  of 
troubles,"  comparing  the  troubles  in  question,  in  the  same  breath,  to  an 
enemy  and  to  a  sea. 

Y.  Lastly,  metaphors  should  not  be  carried  too  far ;  if  all  the  minor 
poiDts  of  resemblance  are  sought  out  and  dwelt  upon,  the  reader  will  in- 
evitably become  wearied. 

§  346.  Hyperbole. 

I.  Violent  hyperboles  are  out  of  place  in  mere  descriptions.  A  per- 
son in  great  affliction  may  indulge  in  wild  exaggeration,  but  for  a  writer 
merely  describing  such  a  person  to  use  language  like  the  following  is  pure 
bombast : — 

"  I  found  her  on  the  floor, 
In  all  the  storm  of  grief,  yet  beautiful ; 
Pouring  forth  tears  at  such  a  lavish  rate, 
That,  were  the  world  on  fire,  they  might  have  drowned 
The  wrath  of  Heaven,  and  quenched  the  mighty  ruin."— Lee. 

II.  Hyperboles  may  be  so  extravagant  as  to  render  the  writer  and 
his  subject  ridiculous.     Lucan  furnishes  a  case  in  point.     The  later 

taining  a  violation  of  this  principle.  What  are  mixed  metaphors  ?  What  is  their 
effect?  Show  how  Addison  and  Shakspeare  violate  this  rule.  What  is  said 
About  carrying  metaphors  too  far? 

5  346.  In  what  are  Tiolent  hyperboles  out  of  place  ?    Give  an  example  of  bom- 


260  EXERCISE    ON   FIGURES. 

Koman  poets,  as  a  compliment  to  their  emperors,  were  in  the  habit  of 
asking  them  in  their  addresses  what  part  of  the  heavens  they  would 
choose  for  their  habitation  after  they  had  become  gods.  Lucan,  how- 
ever, resolving  to  outdo  all  his  predecessors  in  an  address  to  Nero, 
gravely  beseeches  him  not  to  choose  his  place  near  either  of  the  poles, 
leet  his  weight  overturn  the  universe. 


LESSON    LIII. 

EXERCISE     OX     FIGURES, 

Point  out  the  figures  of  orthography,  etymology,  syntax, 
and  rhetoric,  that  occur  in  the  following  extracts.  In  each 
passage,  there  is  a  faulty  figure,  which  violates  one  or  more 
of  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  last  lesson.  Show  wherein 
the  error  lies,  and  suggest,  in  each  case,  a  figure  by  which 
the  difficulty  in  question  may  be  avoided. 

FAULTY    SIMILES. 

1.  "  The  holy  Book,  like  the  eighth  sphere,  doth  shine." — Cowley. 

2.  "  The  sun,  in  figures  such  as  these, 
Joys  with  the  moon  to  play : 

To  the  sweet  strains  they  advance, 
Which  do  result  from  their  own  spheres, 

As  this  nymph's  dance 
Moves  with  the  numbers  which  she  hears." — ^Waller. 

S.  In  Shakspeare's  Richard  II.,  a  gardener  gives  these  directions  to 

his  servants : — 

"  Go,  bind  thou  up  yon  dangling  apricots. 
Which,  like  unruly  children,  make  their  sire 
Stoop  with  oppression  of  their  prodigal  weight ; 
Give  some  supportance  to  the  bending  twigs. 
Go  thou ;  and,  like  an  executioner. 
Cut  oft'  the  heads  of  too  fast-growing  sprays, 
That  look  too  lofty  in  our  commonwealth ; 
All  must  be  even  in  our  government." 

bast  produced  by  this  flg:nrc.    What  is  said  of  extravagant  hyperboles  ?    Cit« 
one  in  which  Lacan  indnlgof. 


EXERCISE   ON   FIGURES.  261 

4.  In  Addison's  Cato,  Fortius,  bidding  his  beloved  Lucia  an  eternal 
farewell,  uses  the  following  language : — 

"  Thus  o'er  the  dying  lamp  the  unstiady  flame 
Hangs  quivering  on  a  point,  leaps  off  by  fits 
And  falls  again,  as  loath  to  quit  its  hold. 

Thou  must  not  go  ;  my  soul  still  hovers  o'er  thee, 

And  can't  get  loose." 

5.  "  Nor  could  the  Greeks  repel  the  Lycian  powers, 

Nor  the  bold  Lycians  forCe  the  Grecian  towers. 

As,  on  the  confines  of  adjoining  grounds. 

Two  stubborn  swains  with  blows  dispute  their  bounds ; 

They  tug,  they  sweat ;  but  neither  gain  nor  yield, 

One  foot,  one  inch,  of  the  contended  field." — Pope's  Homer. 

6.  Speaking  of  the  fallen  angels,  searching  for  mines  of  gold,  Milton 
gays : — 

"  A  numerous  brigade  hastened  :  as  when  bands 
Of  pioneers,  with  spade  and  pick-axe  armed, 
Forerun  the  royal  camp  to  trench  a  field 
Or  cast  a  rampart." 

FAULTY   METAPHORS. 

Y.  "  Trothal  went  forth  with  the  stream  of  his  people,  but  they  met  a 
rock:  for  Fingal  stood  unmoved;  broken,  they  rolled  back  from  his 
side.  Nor  did  they  roll  in  safety ;  the  spear  of  the  king  pursued  their 
flight."— Ossi  AN. 

8.  A  torrent  of  superstition  consumed  the  land. 

9.  "  Where  is  the  monarch  who  dares  resist  us  ?  Where  is  the  po- 
tentate who  doth  not  glory  in  being  numbered  among  our  attendants  ? 
As  for  thee,  descended  from  a  Turcoman  sailor,  since  the  vessel  of  thy 
unbounded  ambition  hath  been  wrecked  in  the  gulf  of  thy  self-love,  it 
would  be  proper  that  thou  should'st  take  in  the  sails  of  thy  temerity, 
and  cast  the  anchor  of  repentance  in  the  port  of  sincerity  and  justice, 
which  is  the  port  of  safety;  lest  the  tempest  of  our  vengeance  make 
thee  perish  in  the  sea  of  the  punishment  thou  deservest." — Tamerlane. 

10.  Dryden,  in  the  following  lines,  describes  the  Supreme  Being  as 
extinguishing  the  fire  of  London  in  accordance  with  the  supplications  of 
His  people : — 

"  A  hollow  crystal  pyramid  He  takes, 
In  firmamental  waters  dipped  above  ; 
Of  this  a  broad  extinguisher  He  makes, 
And  hoods  the  flames  that  to  their  quarry  strove." 

11.  "The  Alps, 

The  palaces  of  nature,  whose  vast  walls 
Have  pinnacled  in  clouds  their  snowy  scalps." 

12.  "  There  is  a  time  when  factions,  by  the  vehemence  of  their  own 
fermentation,  stun  and  disable  one  another." — Bolingbroke. 


262  STYLE  AND  ITS  VAEIETIES. 

13.  "  The  tackle  of  my  heart  is  cracked  and  burnt; 

And  all  the  shrouds  wherewith  my  life  should  sail 

Are  turned  to  one  thread,  one  little  hair : 

My  heart  hath  one  poor  string  to  stay  it  by, 

Which  holds  but  till  thy  news  be  uttered." — Shakspearm. 

FAULTY   HYPERBOLES. 

14.  "  By  every  wind  that  comes  this  way, 

Send  me  at  least  a  sigh  or  two ; 
Such  and  so  many  I'll  repay 
As  shall  themselves  make  winds  to  get  to  you." — Cowlet. 

15.  "  All  armed  in  brass,  the  richest  dress  of  war, 

(A  dismal,  glorious  sight)  he  shone  afar. 

The  sun  himself  started  with  sudden  fright 

To  see  his  beams  return  so  dismal  bright." — Cowley. 

16.  *'  Aumerle,  thou  weep'st,  my  tender-hearted  cousin ! 

We'll  make  foul  weather  with  despised  tears : 

Our  sighs,  and  they,  shall  lodge  the  summer-corn. 

And  make  a  dearth  in  this  revolting  land." — Shakspeare. 


LESSON    LIV. 

STYLE     AND      ITS     VARIETIES. 

§  347.  If  we  examine  the  compositions  of  any  two  indi« 
viduals  on  the  same  subject,  we  shall  generally  find  that,  not 
only  do  their  respective  sentiments  differ,  but  also  their  modes 
of  expressing  those  sentiments.  This  is  no  more  than  natu- 
ral. We  must  expect  the  thoughts  and  words  of  men  to 
differ  similarly  with  their  actions  and  dispositions.  Now,  the 
peculiar  manner  in  which  a  writer  expresses  his  thoughts  by 
means  of  words  is  called  Style, — a  word  derived  from  the 
Latin  stylus,  the  name  of  a  pomted  steel  instrument  em- 
ployed by  the  Romans  in  writing  on  their  waxen  tablets. 
Yet,  while  the  mental  peculiarities  of  most  writers  are  ap- 
parent in  their  diction,  there  are  some  general  distinctive 

%  347.  On  oxaminiuj;  the  compofiitions  of  two  different  persons  on  the  same 
Butject,  what  will  wo  generally  find  f    What  Is  style  ?    From  what  is  the  wonl 


STYLE  AND  ITS  VAEIETIES.  263 

features  which  enable  us  to  divide  their  various  styles  into 
different  classes,  as  follows :  the  Dry,  the  Plain,  the  Neat, 
the  Elegant,  the  Florid,  the  Simple,  the  Labored,  the  Con- 
cise, the  Diffuse,  the  Nervous,  and  the  Feeble.  These  we 
shall  now  consider,  premising  that  (with  the  exception  of  the 
Dry,  the  Labored,  and  the  Feeble,  wliich  are  always  to  be 
avoided)  they  are  appropriate  to  different  subjects,  and  must 
be  selected  by  a  writer  with  reference  to  the  matter  he  pro- 
poses to  treat.  It  is  obvious  that  the  swelling  style  of  an 
oration  would  be  altogether  out  of  place  in  a  philosophical 
essay  or  an  unpretending  letter.  As  we  define  each,  we 
shall  note  to  what  compositions  it  is  adapted. 

§  348.  The  difference  between  the  first  five  of  the  styles 
enumerated  above,  consists  chiefly  in  the  amount  of  orna- 
ment employed. 

A  Dry  Style  excludes  ornament  of  every  kind.  Aiming  only  to  be 
understood,  it  takes  no  trouble  to  please  either  the  fancy  or  the  ear. 
Such  a  style  is  tolerable  in  didactic  writing  alone,  and  even  there  only 
solidity  of  matter  and  perspicuity  of  language  enable  us  to  endure  it. 
This  is  so  generally  felt  that  we  have  but  few  specimens  of  a  purely  dry 
style.  Aristotle's  may  be  mentioned  among  the  most  striking ;  and,  in 
modem  times,  Berkley  has  perhaps  approached  it  as  nearly  as  any  other 
writer. 

A  Plain  Style  rises  one  degree  above  that  last  described.  While  the 
plain  writer  is  at  no  pains  to  please  us  with  ornament,  he  carefully 
avoids  disgusting  us  with  harshness.  In  addition  to  perspicuity,  which 
is  the  only  aim  of  the  dry  writer,  he  studies  precision,  purity,  and  pro- 
priety. Such  figures  as  are  naturally  suggested  and  tend  to  elucidate 
his  meaning,  he  does  not  reject ;  while  such  as  merely  embellish  he 
avoids  as  beneath  his  notice.  To  this  class  of  writers  Locke  and  Swift 
belong. 

Next  in  order  is  the  Mat  Style.    Here  ornaments  are  employed,  but 


derived  ?    Enumerate  the  principal  varieties  of  style.    By  wliat  must  a  writer  be 
guided  in  making  a  selection  between  them  ? 

§  348.  In  what  does  the  diflterence  between  the  first  five  of  these  styles  consist  ? 
Describe  the  dry  style.  In  what  kind  of  writing  alone  is  it  tolerable  ?  What 
authors  afford  the  most  striking  specimens  of  this  style.  Describe  the  plain 
style?  Besides  perspicuity,  what  does  the  plain  writer  study?  What  figures 
doM  he  employ  ?    What  writers  belong  to  this  class  ?    What  style  is  next  in 


204  BTYLE  AND  ITS  VARIETIES. 

not  those  of  the  most  elevated  or  sparkling  kind ;  they  are  appropriate 
and  correct,  rather  than  bold  and  glowing.  Beauty  of  composition  is 
Bought  to  be  attained  rather  by  a  judicious  selection  and  arrangement  of 
words  than  by  striking  efforts  of  imagination.  The  sentences  employed 
are  of  moderate  length,  and  carefully  freed  from  superfluities.  This  stylo 
is  adapted  to  every  species  of  writing ;  to  the  letter,  the  essay,  the  sermon, 
the  law-paper,  and  even  the  most  abstract  treatise. 

Advancing  a  step,  we  come  to  the  Elegant  Style  ;  which  possesses  all 
the  beauty  that  ornament  can  add,  without  any  of  the  drawbacks  arising 
from  its  improper  or  excessive  use.  It  may  be  regarded  as  the  perfec- 
tion of  style.  "  An  elegant  writer,"  says  Blair,  "  is  one  who  pleases 
the  fancy  and  the  ear,  while  he  informs  the  understanding ;  and  who 
gives  us  his  ideas  clothed  with  all  the  beauty  of  expression,  but  not  over- 
charged with  any  of  its  misplaced  finery."  Such  a  one  preeminently  is 
Addison ;  and  such,  though  in  a  less  degree,  are  Pope,  Temple,  and 
Bolingbroke. 

A  Florid  Style  is  one  in  which  ornament  is  everywhere  employed. 
The  term  is  used  with  a  twofold  signification  : — for  the  ornaments  may 
spring  from  a  luxuriant  imagination  and  have  a  solid  basis  of  thought  to 
rest  upon :  or,  as  is  too  often  the  case,  the  luxuriance  may  be  in  words 
alone  and  not  in  fancy ;  the  brilliancy  may  be  merely  superficial,  a 
glittering  tinsel,  which,  however  much  it  may  please  the  shallow-minded, 
can  not  fail  to  disgust  the  judicious.  As  first  defined,  this  style  has  been 
employed  by  several  distinguished  writers  with  marked  success  ;  among 
these  the  most  prominent  is  Ossian,  whose  poems  consist  almost  entirely 
of  bold  and  brilliant  figures.  But  it  is  only  writers  of  transcendent 
genius  that  can  thus  indulge  in  continued  ornament  with'  any  hope  of 
success.  Inferior  minds  inevitably  fall  into  the  second  kind  of  floridity 
alluded  to  above,  than  which  nothing  is  more  contemptible.  Vividness 
of  imagination  in  the  young  often  betrays  them  into  this  fault ;  it  is  one, 
however,  which  time  generally  corrects,  and  which  is  therefore  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  the  opposite  extreme.  "Luxuriance,"  says  Quintilian,  "can 
easily  be  cured  ;  but  for  barrenness  there  is  no  remedy." 

Careful  revision  is  the  best  means  of  correcting  an  over-florid  stylo. 

order  In  point  of  ornament  ?  Describe  it.  To  what  varieties  of  compoBition  is 
it  adapted  ?  What  is  the  next  style  ?  Describe  it.  What  docs  Blair  Pay  of  the 
elegant  writer  ?  What  authors  have  excelled  in  this  style  ?  What  is  meant  by  a 
florid  style  ?  State  in  what  two  senses  this  term  is  used.  As  flret  defined,  by 
whom  has  it  been  employed  ?  What  writers  alone  can  hope  to  use  it  with  suc- 
cess ?  Into  what  are  inferior  minds  that  attempt  it  apt  to  fall  ?  Who  are  often 
betrayed  into  this  fault  by  vividnessJ  of  imacrination  ?  What  docs  Quintilian  pay 
respoctinj?  luxuriance  and  barrenness  t  What  Is  the  best  means  of  correcting  an 
over-flond  style  ?    What  other  means  is  suggested  ?    Show  how  it  operates. 


STYLE   AND   ITS  VARIETIES.  265 

Unnecessary  words  must  be  stricken  out,  and  even  the  whole  sentence 
must  sometimes  be  remodelled.  On  the  ornamental  parts,  in  particular, 
the  file  must  be  freely  used.  Figures  which  are  not  in  all  respects  chaste 
and  appropriate  to  the  subject,  must  be  unceremoniously  removed.  To 
write  frequently  on  familiar  themes  will  be  found  another  effective 
means  of  correcting  excessive  flpridity.  In  such  exercises,  the  inappro- 
priateness  of  too  much  ornament  will  be  obvious  to  the  writer  himself, 
and  the  effort  made  to  repress  it  will  have  a  beneficial  effect  on  all  his 
compositions. 

§  349.  The  Simple  and  the  Labored  Style  are  directly 
opposed  to  each  other,  the  difference  between  them  lying 
principally  in  the  structure  of  their  respective  sentences. 

The  simple  writer  expresses  himself  so  easily  that  the  reader,  before 
making  the  attempt,  imagines  he  can  write  as  well  himself.  His  diction 
bears  no  marks  of  art ;  it  seems  to  be  the  very  language  of  nature. 
The  man  of  taste  and  good  sense  is  unable  to  suggest  any  change  where- 
by the  author  could  have  dealt  more  properly  or  efficiently  with  -liis 
subject.  Simplicity  does  not  imply  plainness ;  when  ornaments  arc 
suited  to  the  subject,  it  adopts  them,  its  chief  aim  being  consistency  with 
nature.  The  best  specimens  of  simplicity  are  afforded  by  the  writers  of 
antiquity, — particularly  Homer,  Herodotus,  Xenophon,  and  Ca3sar ;  and 
the  reason  is  plain,  because  they  wrote  from  the  dictates  of  natural 
genius,  and  imitated  neither  the  thoughts  nor  the  style  of  others.  Among 
moderns.  Goldsmith's  writings  are  characterized  by  this  quality  in  the 
highest  degree. 

Simplicity  having  been  thus  defined  at  length,  it  is  unnecessary  to  say 
much  respecting  the  labored  style,  which  is  in  all  respects  its  reverse. 
The  characteristics  of  the  latter  are  affectation,  misplaced  ornament,  a 
preponderance  of  swelling  words,  long  and  involved  sentences,  and  a  con- 
strained tone,  neither  easy,  graceful,  nor  natural. 

§  350.  Styles  are  distinguished  as  Concise  and  Diffuse^ 
according  as  few  or  many  words  are  employed  by  the  writer 
to  express  his  thoughts. 

The  concise  writer,  aiming  to  express  himself  in  the  briefest  possible 


§  S49.  What  18  the  opposite  of  a  simple  style?  In  what  does  the  difference 
between  them  chiefly  consist  ?  Describe  the  diction  of  the  simple  writer.  Wliat 
oraaments  does  he  employ?  Who  afford  the  best  specimens  of  simplicity  ?  Why? 
What  modem  writer  possesses  this  quality  in  a  high  degree?  What  are  the 
characteristics  of  the  labored  style  ? 

§  350.  What  constitutes  the  difference  between  the  concise  and  the  diffuse 
etjie  ?    How  does  the  concise  writer  express  himself?  How,  the  diffuse  ?  When 


266  STYLE  AND  ITS  VARIETIES. 

maimer,  rejects  as  redundant  every  thing  not  material  to  the  sense.  He 
presents  a  thought  but  once,  and  then  in  its  most  striking  light.  Bis 
sentences  are  compact  and  strong  rather  than  harmonious,  and  suggest 
more  than  they  directly  express. 

The  diffuse  writer,  on  the  other  hand,  presents  his  thoughts  in  a 
variety  of  lights,  and  endeavors  by  repetition  to  make  himself  perfectly 
understood.  Fond  of  amplification,  he  indulges  in  long  sentences,  making 
up  by  copiousness  what  he  lacks  in  strength. 

EacL  of  these  styles  |jas  its  beauties,  and  each  becomes  faulty  when 
carried  to  excess.  Too  great  conciseness  produces  abruptness  and  ob- 
scurity ;  while  extreme  diffuseness  dilutes  the  thought,  and  makes  but  a 
feeble  impression  on  the  reader.  In  deciding  to  which  of  these  qualities 
it  is  best  to  incline  in  any  particular  instance,  we  should  be  controlled 
by  the  nature  of  the  subject.  Discourses  intended  for  delivery  require  a 
more  copious  style  than  matter  which  is  to  be  printed  and  read  at  leisure. 
When,  as  in  the  case  of  the  latter,  there  is  an  opportunity  of  pausing 
and  reviewing  what  is  not  at  first  understood,  greater  brevity  is  allow- 
able than  when  the  meaning  has  to  be  caught  from  the  words  of  a 
speaker,  and  is  th^is,  if  too  tersely  expressed,  liable  to  be  lost.  As  a 
general  thing,  in  descriptions,  essays,  and  sublime  and  impassioned 
writing,  it  is  safer  to  incline  to  conciseness.  The  interest  is  thus  kept 
alive,  the.  attention  is  riveted,  and  the  reader's  mind  finds  agreeable  ex- 
ercise in  following  out  the  ideas  suggested,  without  being  fully  presented, 
by  the  author. 

The  most  concise,  as  well  as  the  simplest,  writers  arc  found  among 
the  ancients.  Aristotle  and  Tacitus,  above  all  others,  are  characterized 
by  terseness  and  brevity  of  expression ;  the  former,  indeed,  in  a  greater 
degree  than  propriety  allows.  The  genius  of  our  language,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  is  opposed  to  the  pointed  brevity  which  constitutes  the 
principal  charm  of  the  classics.  We  shall  therefore  find  comparatively 
few  specimens  of  concise  composition  in  our  literature ;  while,  on  the 
contrary,  we  can  boast  of  many  writers,  who,  in  elegant  diffuseness,  will 
not  compare  unfavorably  with  Cicero,  the  great  model  of  antiquity  in 
this  variety  of  style. 

§  351.  The  Nervous  and  the  Feeble  Style  produce  k^ 

do  both  these  styles  become  faulty  ?  What  results  from  too  prcat  conciscnose  ? 
What,  from  extreme  diflTiiseneeH  ?  In  deciding,  in  any  particular  inetanco,  to 
which  it  Is  best  to  Incline,  by  what  should  we  bo  controlled?  Which  of  ihcso 
Ptyles  is  recommended  for  matter  that  is  to  be  spoken,  and  on  what  grounds  ? 
Which  is  the  better  for  sublime  and  impassioned  writing,  and  why  ?  Where 
must  we  look  for  the  most  concice  writers  ?  What  two,  in  particular,  arc  men- 
tioned t    Which  of  those  styles  does  the  geniuo  if  our  language  favor  ? 


EXERCISE   ON   THE   VARIETIES    OF    STYLE.  2G7 

spectively  a  strong  and  a  slight  impression  on  the  reader  or 
hearer. 

They  are  by  some  considered  synonymous  with  the  diffuse  and  the 
concise,  but  not  properly ;  for,  however  much  the  latter  qualities  may 
contribute  to  produce  the  former,  there  are  instances  of  a  feeble  brevity 
as  well  as  a  nervous  copiousness.  When  considering  the  essential  prop- 
erties of  style,  we  shall  have  occasion  to  treat  of  strength,  and  it  will 
then  appear  in  what  that  quality  consists.  Meanwhile,  we  may  say  that 
unmeaning  epithets,  vague  expressions,  and  improper  arrangements  of 
words  and  clauses,  are  to  be  avoided,  as  inevitable  sources  of  weakness. 


LESSON   LV. 

EXEECISE   ON  THE   VARIETIES   OF   STYLE. 

Brief  examples  of  the  principal  styles  described  in  the 
last  lesson  are  presented  below.  The  judicious  writer  aims 
at  variety  in  his  compositions ;  and  hence,  though  a  work,  as 
a  whole,  may  have  a  prevailing  tone  or  manner,  it  does  not 
follow  that  successive  sentences  are  so  distinguished.  We 
can  therefore  better  exemplify  the  different  styles  by  short 
passages  than  by  lengthy  extracts.  Besides  pointing  out  the 
peculiarities  which  lead  us  to  characterize  these  extracts  as 
dry,  elegant,  florid,  &c.,  show  what  figures  occur,  and  name 
them ;  also,  supply  the  omitted  points. 

DRY   STYLE. 

The  Sceptic. — Whether  the  principles  of  Christians  or  iniSdels  are 
truest  may  be  made  a  question  but  which  are  safest  can  be  none.  Cer- 
tainly if  you  doubt  of  all  opinions  you  must  doubt  of  your  own  and  then 
for  aught  you  know  the  Christian  may  be  true.  The  more  doubt  the 
more  room  there  is  for  faith  a  sceptic  of  all  men  having  the  least  right 
to  demand  evidence.  But  whatever  uncertainty  there  may  be  in  other 
points  thus  much  is  certain  either  there  is  or  is  not  a  God  there  is  or  is 

§  351.  What  styles  remain  to  he  considered  ?  With  what  are  they  by  some 
considered  Bynonymous  ?  SIiow  why  this  is  not  a  correct  view.  What  are  to  he 
avoided,  as  inevitable  sources  of  weakness  ? 


268  EXERCISE   ON  TUE  VARIETIES   OF  STYLE. 

not  a  revelation  man  either  is  or  is  not  an  agent  the  soul  is  or  is  not 
immortal.  If  the  negatives  are  not  sure  the  affirmatives  are  possible. 
If  the  negatives  are  improbable  the  affirmatives  are  probable.  In  pro- 
portion as  any  of  your  ingenious  men  fifads  himself  unable  to  prove  any 
one  of  these  negatives  he  hath  grounds  to  suspect  he  may  be  mistaken. 
A  minute  philosopher  therefore  that  would  act  a  •consistent  part  should 
have  the  diffidence  the  modesty  and  the  timidity  as  well  &s  the  doubts 
of  a  sceptic. — Berkley. 

ELEGANT  STYLE. 

Reflections  in  Westminster  Abhei/. — "When  I  look  upon  the  tombs  of 
the  great  every  emotion  of  envy  dies  in  me  when  I  read  the  epitaphs  of 
the  beautiful  every  inordinate  desire  goes  out  when  I  meet  with  the 
grief  of  parents  upon  a  tombstone  my  heart  melts  with  compassion  when 
1  see  the  tomb  of  the  parents  themselves  I  consider  the  vanity  of  grieving 
for  those  whom  we  must  quickly  follow.  When  I  see  kings  lying  by 
those  who  deposed  them  when  I  consider  rival  wits  placed  side  by  side 
or  the  holy  men  that  divided  the  world  with  their  contests  and  disputes 
I  reflect  with  sorrow  and  astonishment  on  the  little  competitions  factions 
and  debates  of  mankind.  When  I  read  the  several  dates  of  the  tombs 
of  some  that  died  yesterday  and  some  six  hundred  years  ago  I  consider 
that  great  day  when  we  shall  all  of  us  be  contemporaries  and  make  our 
appearance  together. — Addison. 

FLORID   STYLE. 

77ie  Flowery  Creation. — The  snowdrop  foremost  of  the  lovely  train 
breaks  her  way  through  the  frozen  soil  in  order  to  present  her  early  com- 
pliments to  her  lord  dressed  in  the  robe  of  innocency  she  steps  forth 
fearless  of  danger  long  before  the  trees  have  ventured  to  unfold  their 
leaves  even  while  the  icicles  are  peudent  on  our  houses. — Next  peeps 
out  the  crocus  but  cautiously  and  with  an  an*  of  timidity.  She  hears  the 
howling  blasts  and  skulks  close  to  her  low  situation.  Afraid  she  seems 
to  make  large  excursions  from  her  root  while  so  many  ruffian  winds  are 
abroad  and  scouring  along  the  aether. — Nor  is  the  violet  last  in  this  shin- 
ing embassy  of  the  year  which  with  all  the  embellishments  that  would 
grace  a  royal  garden  condescends  to  line  our  hedges  and  grow  at  the  feet 
of  briers.  Freely  and  without  any  solicitations  she  distributes  the  bounty 
of  her  emissive  sweets  while  herself  with  an  exemplary  humility  retires 
from  sight  seeking  rather  to  administer  pleasure  than  to  win  admiration 
ernblem  expressive  emblem  of  those  modest  virtues  which  delight  to 
bloom  in  obscurity  which  extend  a  cheering  influence  to  multitudes  who 
are  scarce  acquainted  with  the  source  of  their  comforts  motive  engaging 
motive  to  thiit  ever-active  beneficence  which  stays  not  for  the  importu- 
nity of  the  distressed  but  anticipates  their  suit  and  prevents  them  with 
the  blessings  of  its  goodness ! — IIervey. 

SIMPLE   STYLE. 

77i€  Village  Schoolmaster. 

Beside  yon  straggling  fence  that  skirts  the  way 
With  blossomed  furze  unprofltably  gay 
There  in  his  noisy  mansion  skilled  to  rule 
The  village  master  taught  his  little  school. 


EXERCISE   ON   THE   VAKIETIES   OF   STYLE.  260 

A  man  severe  lie  was  and  stern  to  view 

I  knew  him  well  and  every  truant  knew. 

Well  had  the  boding  tremblers  learned  to  trace 

The  day's  disasters  in  his  morning's  face 

Full  well  they  laughed  with  counterfeited  glee 

At  all  his  jokes  for  many  a  joke  had  he 

Full  well  the  busy  whisper  circling  round 

Conveyed  the  dismal  tidings  when  he  frowned 

Yet  he  was  kind  or  if  severe  in  aught 

The  love  he  bore  to  learning  was  a  fault. 

The  village  all  declared  how  much  he  knew 

'Twas  certain  he  could  write  and  cipher  too 

Lands  he  could  measure  terms  and  tides  presage 

And  e'en  the  story  ran  that  he  could  gauge 

In  arguing  too  the  parson  owned  his  skill 

For  e'en  though  vanquished  he  could  argue  still 

While  words  of  learned  length  and  thundering  sound 

Amazed  the  gazing  rustics  ranged  around 

And  still  they  gazed  and  still  the  wonder  grew 

That  one  small  head  could  carry  all  he  knew. 

But  past  is  all  his  fame  the  very  spot 

Where  many  a  time  he  triumphed  is  forgot. — Goldsmith. 

LABORED   STYLE. 

The  Good  Housewife. — Next  unto  her  sanctity  and  holiness  of  life  it 
ii>  meet  that  our  English  housewife  be  a  woman  of  great  modesty  and 
temperance  as  well  inwardly  as  outwardly  inwardly  as  in  her  behavior 
and  carriage  towards  her  husband  wherein  she  shall  shun  all  violence  of 
rage  passion  and  humor  coveting  less  to  direct  than  to  be  directed  ap- 
pearing ever  unto  him  pleasant  amiable  and  delightful  and  though  occa- 
sion of  mishaps  or  the  misgovernment  of  his  will  may  induce  her  to  con- 
trary thoughts  yet  virtuously  to  suppress  them  and  with  a  mild  sufferance 
rather  to  call  him  home  from  his  error  than  with  the  strength  of  anger 
to  abate  the  least  spark  of  his  evil  calling  into  her  mind  that  evil  and 
uncomely  language  is  deformed  though  uttered  even  to  servants  but  most 
monstrous  and  ugly  when  it  appears  before  the  presence  of  a  husband 
outwardly  as  in  her  apparel  and  diet  both  Avhich  she  shall  proportion 
according  to  the  competency  of  her  husband's  estate  and  calling  making 
her  circle  rather  straight  than  large  for  it  is  a  rule  if  we  extend  to  the 
uttermost  we  take  away  increase  if  we  go  a  hair's  breadth  beyond  we  en- 
ter into  consumption  but  if  we  preserve  any  part  we  build  strong  forts 
against  the  adversaries  of  fortune  provided  that  such  preservation  be 
honest  and  conscionable. — Markham. 

CONCISE    STYLE. 

Studies. — Some  books  are  to  be  tasted  others  to  be  swallowed  and 
some  few  to  be  chewed  and  digested  that  is  some  books  are  to  be  read 
only  in  parts  others  to  be  read  but  not  curiously  and  some  few  to  be 
read  wholly  and  with  diligence  and  attention.  Some  books  also  may  be 
read  by  deputy  and  extracts  made  of  them  by  others  but  that  would  be 
only  in  the  less  important  arguments  and  the  meaner  sort  of  books  else 
distilled  books  are  like  common  distilled  waters  flashy  things.     Reading 


270  ESSENTIAL   TROPERTIES   OF   STYLE. 

maketh  a  full  man  conference  u  ready  man  and  writing  an  exact  man 
and  therefore  if  a  man  write  little  he  had  need  have  a  great  memory  if 
he  confer  little  he  had  need  have  a  present  wit  and  if  he  read  little  ho 
had  need  have  much  cunning  to  seem  to  know  what  he  doth  not.-' 
Bacon. 

nervous  style. 

On  the  Impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings. — In  the  course  of  all  this 
proceeding  your  lordships  will  not  fail  to  observe  he  is  never  corrupt  but 
he  is  cruel  he  never  dines  with  comfort  but  where  he  is  sure  to  create  a 
famine.  He  never  robs  from  the  loose  superfluity  of  standing  greatness 
he  devours  the  fallen  the  indigent  the  necessitous.  His  extortion  is  not 
like  the  generous  rapacity  of  the  princely  eagle  who  snatches  away  the 
living  struggling  prey  he  is  a  vulture  who  feeds  upon  the  prostrate  the 
dying  and  the  dead.  As  his  cruelty  is  more  shocking  than  his  corrup- 
tion so  his  hypocrisy  has  something  more  frightful  than  his  cruelty.  Fof 
whilst  his  bloody  and  rapacious  hand  signs  proscriptions  and  sweeps 
away  the  food  of  the  widow  and  the  orphan  his  eyes  overflow  with  tears 
and  he  converts  the  healing  balm  that  bleeds  from  wounded  humanity 
into  a  rancorous  and  deadly  poison  to  the  race  of  man. — Bcrke. 


LESSON    LVI. 

ESSENTIAL  PEOPEETIES  OF  STYLE. — ^PURITY. — PROPRIETY. 

§  352.  It  has  been  observed  that  the  peculiarities  of  in- 
dividual minds,  appearing  in  their  respective  styles  of  com- 
position, give  rise  to  the  varieties  enumerated  in  the  last 
lesson.  In  some,  this  peculiarity  of  manner  is  so  decided 
that  the  author,  even  when  he  writes  anonymously,  is  easily 
recognized.  Such  marked  individuality  of  style,  adhered  to 
by  an  author  throughout  his  compositions,  is  known  as 
mannerism.  While  these  peculiarities  of  diction  are  by  no 
means  forbidden  by  the  rules  of  composition,  there  are  cer- 
tain properties  which  every  stjde  ought  to  possess.  These 
arc  seven  in  number;  Purity,  Propriety,  Precision,  Clear- 
ness, Strength,  Harmony,  and  Unity. 

%  352.  From  what  do  the  varieties  of  style  take  their  rise  f    What  is  manner 
Ism  T    What  is  meant  by  the  essential  properties  of  style  f    Mention  them. 


PUEiTy.  271 

§  353.  PuEiTY  consists  in  the  use  of  such  words  and  con- 
structions as  properly  belong  to  the  genius  of  the  language. 
It  may  be  violated,  therefore,  in  two  ways :  first,  by  the  Bar- 
barism, or  use  of  an  impure  word ;  and,  secondly,  by  the 
Solecism,  or  use  of  an  impure  construction.  Of  these  faults 
there  are  several  varieties. 

§  354.  JBarbarisms. — These  consist  of, 

I.  Obsolete  words ;  that  is,  such  as  have  gone  out  of  use. 
Among  these  we  may  mention  the  following,  sometimes  employed  by 
affected  writers ; — 


Behest^  command. 
Bewray^  betray. 
Erst^  formerly. 
IrTcs,  wearies. 
Lety  hinder. 
Peradveniure,  perhaps. 


Quoth,  said. 
Sithy  since. 
Stroam,  roam. 
}VIdlom,  of  old. 
Wist,  knew. 
Wot,  know. 


Whatever  these  and  similar  words  may  have  been  in  the  days  of  our 
forefathers,  they  can  not  now  be  regarded  as  pure  English.  They  arc 
sometimes  used  in  poetry,  in  burlesques,  and  in  narratives  of  ancient  times, 
to  which,  being  in  keeping  with  the  characters  and  objects  described,  they 
are  peculiarly  appropriate ;  but  in  all  other  varieties  of  composition  they 
should  be  carefully  avoided.  Analogous  to  this  fault  is  that  of  employ- 
ing a  word  in  good  use  with  an  obsolete  signification.  Thus,  in  the  days 
of  Shakspeare  the  verb  owe  often  had  the  meaning  of  own : — 

"  Thou  dost  here  usurp, 
The  name  thou  oivest  [ownest]  not." 

The  writer  who  should,  at  the  present  day,  use  oioe  in  this  sense 
would  be  guilty  of  a  barbarism. 

II.  Newly-coined  words ;  or  such  as  find  their  way  into 
conversation  and  newspapers,  but  are  not  authorized  by  good 
usage :  as,  obligate,  for  oblige  /  deputize,  for  commission,  &c. 

What  we  are  to  regard  as  good  usage  will  be  explained  hereafter. 

§  353.  In  what  does  purity  consist  ?  In  how  many  ways  may  it  be  violated  ? 
What  is  the  barbarism  ?    What,  the  soleciem  ? 

§  354.  What  is  the  first  variety  of  barbarism  ?  Mention  Bome  of  the  obsolete 
words  occasionally  used  by  afifected  writers,  and  give  their  modem  equivalents. 
In  what  varieties  of  writing  are  they  sometimes  used  with  propriety  ?  What 
fault  is  analogous  to  this  ?  Illustrate  this  with  the  verb  owe,  as  used  in  Shak- 
speare.   What  is  the  second  species  of  barbarism  ?    What  writers  are  at  liberty 


272  ruRiTY. 

A  writer  who  is  unfolding  the  principles  of  a  new  science,  and  who  ia 
thus  destitute  of  words  with  which  to  express  his  meaning,  is  at  liberty 
to  coin  such  terms  as  he  needs.  He  must  do  it,  however,  with  cautioD, 
and  must  first  satisfy  himself  that  there  is  no  suitable  word  already  in 
the  language.  In  such  cases,  recourse  is  .generally  had  to  Latin  and 
Greek,  particularly  the  latter ;  and  etymological  analogies  must  be  re- 
garded in  the  process  of  formation. 

With  this  exception,  the  coining  of  words  is  strictly  prohibited ;  and 
the  judicious  writer  will  avoid,  not  only  such  terms  as  have  been  thus 
recently  formed,  but  also  those  which,  though  invented  years  ago  by 
authors  of  note,  have  not  been  received  into  general  use.  It  had  been  bet- 
ter for  our  language,  perhaps,  had  this  principle  in  .later  times  been  more 
carefully  followed.  We  should  thus  have  avoided  such  cumbrous  words 
as  numcrosity^  cognition,  irrefragahiliiy,  and  hundreds  like  them,  whose 
meaning  can  be  as  accurately,  and  far  more  intelligibly,  conveyed  by 
words  in  existence  long  before  they  were  invented.  With  some  writers, 
the  coining  of  these  Latin  derivatives  seems  to  have  been  a  passion. 
Saxon  they  reserved  for  conversation  ;  their  compositions  they  deemed 
it  necessary  to  adorn  with  ponderous  Latin.  The  former  was  their  natu- 
ral idiom ;  the  latter,  their  labored  after-thought.  Dr.  Johnson  was  their 
great  leader,  respecting  whom  an  anecdote  is  related  which  strikingly 
illustrates  this  propensity.  Speaking,  on  one  occasion,  of  "  The  Re- 
hearsal ",  he  said,  "  it  has  not  wit  enough  to  keep  it  sweet ;  "  then,  after 
a  pause  which  he  had  employed  in  translating  this  thought  into  his  latin- 
ized  dialect,  he  added,  "  it  has  not  sufficient  virtue  to  preserve  it  from 
putrefaction." 

A^  our  language  now  stands,  it  is  abundantly  copious  for  all  pur. 
poses ;  and  not  only  is  the  coining  of  new  words  inadmissible,  but  wo 
should  also,  as  we  have  seen,  avoid  the  frivolous  and  unnecessary  inno- 
vations of  others.  The  only  latitude  allowed  is  the  formation  of  com- 
pound words  by  the  union  of  two  or  more  simple  ones  with  the  hyphen, 
whereby  lengthy  circumlocutions  arc  sometimes  avoided ;  but  even  here 
care  must  be  taken  to  combine  only  such  as  naturally  coalesce,  are 
cleaily  understood,  and  convey  an  idea  which  no  word  already  existing 
bears.  Thus,  stand-point  is  an  unobjectionable  compound  ;  but  side-kill 
is  not  to  ^e  tolerated  as  long  as  hill-side  continues  in  good  standing. 


to  coin  words  ?  How  must  the  privilc<j:c  be  exerciecd  ?  In  Buch  caecs,  to  whiit 
languages  is  recourse  generally  had?  What  must  be  regarded  in  the  process  t)f 
formation  ?  With  this  exception,  what  is  said  of  the  coining  of  wordf  ?  Iliid 
tliis  principle  been  generally  followed,  what  cumbrous  words  would  >ve  have 
molded?  What  is  said  of  the  passion  of  some  writers  for  Latin  derivative^' ? 
Illustrate  this  with  an  anecdote  of  Dr.  Johnson,  In  what  may  some  latitude  bo 
ftllowed?    Even  here,  what  must  be  observed?     Illustrate  this.    What  is  the 


rURiT\^.  273 

III.  Foreign  words.  These  are  to  be  rejected,  when 
there  are  pure  English  words  which  express  the  thought 
equally  well. 

As  in  former  years  there  was  a  passion  for  Latin,  so  at  the  present  time 
there  is  a  great  fondness  for  French ;  and  Gallicisms,  or  words  and  idioms 
from  this  language,  are  abundantly  interlarded  in  the  current  compositions 
of  the  day.  Some  of  these  expressions,  such  as  ennui^  hors  de  combat^ 
&e.,  express  the  idea  intended  more  accurately  than  it  can  be  conveyed 
by  any  pure  native  word  or  phrase ;  and  we  can  not,  therefore,  prohibit 
th6ir  use.  In  the  case  of  the  following,*  however,  and  many  others,  there 
are  corresponding  English  words  equally  expressive  ;  and  by  using  their 
foreign  substitutes,  we  only  incur  the  imputation  of  pedantry. 


Amende  honorable,  apology. 

A  projMs,  appropriate. 

Bagatelle,  trifle. 

Beau  mo)ide,  fashionable  world. 

Canaille,  rabble. 

Coup  d'etat,  stroke  of  state  policy. 

Delicaiesse,  delicacy. 

Dernier  r^ssort,  last  resort. 

Sineute,  disturbance. 


Fougue,  turbulence. 
Fraicheur,  coolness. 
Hauteur,  haughtiness, 
Haut  ton,  people  of  fashion. 
Naivete,  simplicity, 
NHmporte,  no  matter. 
Nous  verrons,  we  shall  see. 
Par  excellence,  preeminently. 
Politesse,  politeness. 


IV.  Provincial  words ;  that  is,  such  as  are  employed  in 
particular  districts,  but  are  not  in  general  use.  Thus,  chuck- 
hole  in  some  localities  denotes  a  steep  hole  in  a  wagon-rut ; 
and  chuffy  in  Sussex  and  Kent  means  surly :  but  such  words 
can  not  properly  be  introduced  into  composition. 

§  355.  Solecisms. — As  above  defined,  a  Solecism  is  a 
deviation  from  the  proper  construction  of  words.  It  appears 
in  many  different  forms,  as  follows : — 

I.  Syntactical  errors.  All  violations  of  the  rules  of  syn- 
tax fall  under  this  head.  Some  of  the  principal  of  these  we 
have  already  considered  in  §  216-229. 

II.  Phrases  which,  when  looked  at  grammatically,  con- 
third  variety  of  barbarism  ?  For  what  is  a  fondness  manifested  by  many  writers 
at  the  present  day  ?  What  are  gallicisms  ?  What  is  said  of  some  of  them,  such 
ascnwm'and  hors  de  combat?  When  there  are  corresponding  English  expres- 
sions, what  effect  has  the  use  of  French  words  ?  Repeat  the  list  of  French  words 
often  used,  and  give  their  English  equivalents.  What  is  the  fourth  species  of 
barbai-ism  ?    Give  examples. 

§  355.  Wh&i  is  a  solecism  ?   What  is  the  first  form  in  which  it  appears  ?  What, 
the  second  ?    Exemplify  it.    What,  the  third  ?    Give  illustrations. 


274  PURITY. 

vey  a  different  meaning  from  that  intended ;  as,  "  He  sings 
a  good  song,"  for  "  He  sing^  well."  A  good  song  may  be 
ill  sung,  and  therefore  the  grammatical  meaning  of  the  sen- 
tence is  different  from  that  which  it  is  made  to  bear.  Sim- 
ilar solecisms  are  involved  in  the  expressions,  "  He  tells  a 
good  story,"  "  He  plays  a  good  fiddle,"  &c. 

in.  Foreign  idioms :  such  as,  "  He  knows  to  sing,"  for 
"  He  knows  how  to  sing ; " — "  It  repents  me,"  for  "  I  re- 
pent," &c. 

§  356.  In  §  354  we  spoke  of  words  not  authorized  by 
good  usage ;  it  becomes  necessary  to  inquire  into  the  mean- 
ing of  this  expression.  It  is  evident  that  usage  is  the  only 
standard  both  of  speaking  and  writing ;  that  it  is  the  high- 
est tribunal  to  which,  in  cases  of  grammatical  controversy, 
we  can  appeal.  This,  however,  can  not  be  the  case  with 
all  usage ;  if  it  were,  we  might  with  propriety  defend  the 
grossest  violations  of  orthography  and  S3rntax,  for  which 
abundant  precedents  can  be  found.  That  usage  alone  must 
be  regarded  as  a  standard,  which  is, 

I.  Beputahle,  that  is,  authorized  by  the  majority  of 
■writers  in  good  repute :  not  such  as  are  most  meritorious, 
because  on  this  point  individual  views  may  disagree ;  but 
those  whose  merit  is  generally  acknowledged  by  the  world, 
respecting  which  there  can  be  little  diversity  of  opinion. 

n.  JVatiojiaL  as  opposed  to  provincial  and  foreign. 

The  ignorant  naturally  regard  the  limited  district  in  Avhich  they  live 
as  the  world  at  large,  and  all  that  it  authorizes  as  correct.  The  learned 
are  apt  to  conceive  a  fondness  for  foreign  tongues,  and  to  transplant 
thence  peculiarities  of  diction  into  their  own  vernacular.  Thus  originate 
provincial  and  foreign  usage,  neither  of  which  carries  with  it  any  weight 
of  authority. 

§  35G.  Wliat  is  the  only  standard  of  ppcakhic:  and  writinpr  ?  Why  may  we  not 
regard  all  usage  as  a  standard  ?  To  be  so  regarded,  what  three  essential  qualities 
must  usage  possess  ?  What  is  meant  by  reputable  usage  ?  Why  arc  not  meri- 
torious, rather  than  reputable,  authors  selected  as  staudartls  ?  What  is  meant  by 
national  usage  ?  Show  how  provincial  and  foreign  usage  originate.  To  what  Is 
presout  usage  oppoBed  ?    IIow  far  may  tho  authority  of  old  writers  bo  admitted  ! 


puRiTir.  275 

V 

III.  Present^  as  opposed  to  obsolete.  The  authority  of 
old  writers,  however  great  their  fame,  can  not  be  admitted 
in  support  of  a  term  or  expression  not  used  by  reputable 
authors  of  later  date. 

§  357.  We  sometimes  find,  however,  that  good  usage  is 
not  unifonn ;  that  is,  that  respectable  authors  can  be  pro- 
duced on  both  sides  of  a  question,  in  support  of  two  different 
forms  of  expression,  respecting  which  there  is  controversy. 
In  this  case,  we  can  not  characterize  either  as  barbarous ; 
yet  between  them  we  have  to  select ;  and  it  is  the  province 
of  criticism  to  establish  principles  by  which  our  choice  may 
be  directed.  Reference  is  here  made  to  controverted  points ; 
not  to  those  differences  in  words  and  .constructions  which 
are  not  questions  of  right  and  wrong,  but  allowable  varia- 
tions of  expression. 

In  doubtful  cases,  the  following  rules  will  be  found  of  service  : — 
•  I.  When  usage  is  divided  as  to  any  two  words  or  phrases,  if  either  is 
ever  used  in  a  different  sense  from  the  one  in  question  while  the  other  is 
not,  employ  the  latter.  Thus,  to  express  consequently^  the  two  phrases 
hy  consequence  and  of  consequence  are  employed.  The  former  is  prefera- 
ble, because  the  expression  of  consequence  may  also  mean  of  moment,  of 
importance. 

II.  In  the  fonns  of  words,  consult  the  analogies  of  the  language. 
Thus,  contemporary  is  preferable  to  cotemporary  ;  because,  in  words  com- 
pounded with  con,  the  final  w,  though  expunged  before  a  vowel  or  h  mute, 
is  generally  retained  before  a  consonant:  as,  coincide,  coheir,  concomitant. 
We  have,  indeed,  an  exception  in  copartner  ;  in  which,  though  the  radical 
commences  with  the  consonant  p,  the  final  n  of  con  is  omitted :  but  in 
doubtful  cases  we  must  be  guided  by  the  rule,  and  not  the  exception. 

III.  When  there  are  several  different  forms  in  other  respects  equal, 
that  ought  to  be  preferred  which  is  most  agreeable  to  the  ear.  Thus 
amiableness  and  amiability  arc  both  correct  and  authorized  words,  formed 
according  to  the  analogies  of  the  language  ;  but,  under  this  rule,  the  lat- 
ter, being  the  more  harmonious,  should  have  preference. 

IV.  When  there  is  doubt,  if  either  of  the  words  or  expressions  in 

§  357.  What  do  we  sometimes  find  with  respect  to  fjood  usage  ?  In  this  case, 
to  what  must  we  have  recourse  ?  Give  the  substance  of  the  first  nile,  and  illus- 
trate it.  As  regards  the  forms  of  words,  what  must  we  consult  ?  Exemplify  this 
with  the  word  contem,porary.    Other  things  being  equal,  which  form  of  a  word, 


276  PROl'KIETY. 

question  would  seem,  from  its  etymological  form,  to  have  a  signification 
dift"ereiit  from  that  which  it  commonly  bears,  we  should  reject  it.  Thus, 
loose  and  unloose  are  both  used  to  denote  the  same  idea.  Since,  how- 
ever,  the  prefix  un  negatives  the  meaning  of  the  radical,  io  unloose  would 
etymologically  signify  io  fasten,  io  iic,  and  we  should  therefore,  in  all 
cases,  give  the  preference  to  loose. 

§  358.  The  second  essential  quality  of  style  is  PROPRiETi' : 
which  consists  in  avoiding  vulgarisms^  or  undignified  and  low 
expressions;  in  choosing  correctly  between ' words  formed 
from  the  same  radical,  which  resemble  each  other  in  appear- 
ance, but  diifer  in  application  and  meaning ;  and  in  employ- 
ing words  only  in  such  acceptations  as  are  authorized  by 
good  usage. 

Vulgarisms  are  out -of  place  in  every  variety  of  composition  except 
low  burlesques.  Under  this  head  are  included,  not  only  coarse  expres- 
sions, such  as  "  io  iurn  up  one's  nose  at  any  thing  ",  but  also  words  which 
are  proper  enough  in  conversation  but  not  sufficiently  dignified  for  com- 
l)Osition.  The  latter  are  technically  called  colloquialisms  ;  "  by  dhU  of 
argument,"  "  not  a  whit  better,"  "  to  gd  a  disease,"  will  serve  as  exam- 
ples. Young  writers  naturally  express  themselves  in  writing  as  they 
would  in  speaking.  Hence  colloquialisms,  unless  they  exercise  great 
care,  will  constantly  occur  in  their  compositions. 

The  second  fault  which  violates  Propriety  is  the  confounding  of  kin- 
dred derivatives,  in  the  case  of  which  the  writer  is  misled  by  the  resem- 
blance in  the  appearance  of  the  words,  though  the  difference  between 
their  respective  meanings  may  be  so  great  that  they  can  hardly  be  re- 
garded as  synonymes.  Thus,  from  fdse  we  have  three  nouns  formed, 
which  are  too  often  used  without  proper  discrimination,— /a/«cne««,  falsUiiy 
and  falsehood.  The  following  distinction  should  be  observed  in  their, 
use : — falseness  is  equivalent  to  the  want  of  truth,  and  is  applied  to  per- 
sons only  :  falsity  and  falsehood  are  applied  to  things  alone  ;  the  former 
denotes  that  abstract  quality  which  may  be  defined  as  contrarieti/  to  truth^ 
the  latter  is  simply  an  untrue  assertion.  AVe  speak  of  the  falseness  of 
one  who  icWs  falschood'i,  and  expose  the  falsity  of  his  pretensions. 

nccording  to  the  third  mlo,  shonld  be  preferred  ?   Qlvo  the  substance  of  the  fourth 
rule,  and  apply  it  in  the  case  of  loose  nnd  unloose. 

§  ;i58.  What  Ib  the  second  oBnenlinl  (luality  of  style?  In  what  does  propriety 
consist?  Where  alone  are  vulgarisms  admissible?  What  are  included  under 
this  head  ?  What  writers  are  apt  to  fnll  into  colloquialisms  ?  What  is  the  second 
fanlt  which  violates  propriety  ?  Give  the  three  nouns  derived  from  J'altie  ;  show 
the  proper  application,  aud  illustrate  the  use,  of  each.  Define  the  two  derivatives 


EXERCISE   ON   PURITY   AND   PROtRlETY.  277 

So,  observation  and  observance  are  often  confounded.  The  radical,  ta 
observe^  signifies  both  to  note^  to  mark,  and  to  keep,  to  celebrate.  In  its 
former  acceptation,  it  gives  rise  to  the  verbal  noun  observation  ;  in  its 
latter,  to  observan<x.  We  say,  "  a  man  of  observation,''^  not  observance  ; — 
"  the  observance  [not  obse^'vation']  of  the  Sabbath."   . 

Conscience  and  consciousness  are  thus  distinguished  :  the  former  is  the 
moral  sense  which  discerns  between  right  and  wrong;  the  latter  is  simply 
knowledge,  as  used  in  connection  with  sensations  or  mental  operations. 
Dryden,  therefore,  violates  Propriety  in  the  following  couplet : — 

"  The  sweetest  cordial  we  receive  at  last, 
Is  conscience  of  virtuous  actions  past." 

Negligence  is  often  improperly  used  for  neglect.  The  former  is  a 
habit ;  the  latter,  an  act.  "  His  negligence  was  the  source  of  all  his  mis- 
fortunes."— "  By  his  neglect  he  lost  the  opportunity." 

In  like  manner,  sophism  and  sophistry  are  apt  to  be  confounded.  The 
former  is  a  fallacious  argument ;  the  latter,  a  fallacious  course  of  reason- 
ing. "  Gorgias,  who  was  noted  for  his  sophistry,  then  had  recourse  to  a 
transparent  sophism.'''' 

The  third  fault  that  violates  Propriety  is  the  employment  of  a  word 
in  a  sense  not  authorized  by  good  usage ;  as  when  we  say  a  road  is  ini' 
practicable,  for  impassable ;  or  speak  of  decompoimding  a  mixture,  instead 
of  analyzing  it. 


LESSON    LVII. 

EXERCISE   ON  PURITY   AND  PROPRIETY. 

Correct  the  violations  of  Purity  and  Propriety  in  the 
following  sentences : — 

Pt  RI  T  Y. 

1.  If  the  privileges  to  which  he  has  an  undoubted  right,  and  has  so 
long  enjoyed,  should  now  be  wrested  from  him,  would  be  flagrant  in- 
justice. 2.  The  reUgion  of  these  people,  as  well  as  their  customs  and 
manners,  were  strangely  misrepresented.  3.  Removing  the  terra  from 
Westminster,  sitting  the  Parliament,  was  illegal.   4.  This  change  of  fortune 

from  the  verb  observe,  and  illustrate  their  use.  Show  the  difference  between  con^^ 
science  and  consciousness.  How  does  Dryden  violate  propriety  by  the  use  of  the 
former  ?  Define  the  difference  between  negligence  and  neglect ;  between  sophism 
Rnd  sophistry.    Define  and  illustrate  the  third  fault  that  violates  propriety. 


278  EXEliCISE   ON   PUJKITY   AND   PJiOPKIETY. 

had  quite  transmogrified  him.  5.  The  king  soon  found  reason  to  repent 
him  of  provoking  such  dangerous  enemies.  6.  The  popular  lords  did  not 
fail  to  enlarge  themselves  on  the  subject.  1.  I  shall  endeavor  to  live  here- 
after suitable  to  a  man  in  my  station.  8.  It  was  thought  that  the  cottp 
d'etat  would  have  occasioned  an  emeute.  9.  The  dernie)'  ressort  of  the  em- 
peror will  be  to  make  the  amende  lionorahle  ;  but  nov^  verrons.  10.  The 
queen,  whom  it  highly  imported  that  the  two  monarchs  should  be  at  peace, 
acted  the  part  of  mediator.  11.  The  wisest  princes  need  not  think  it  any 
diminution  to  their  greatness,  or  derogation  to  their  suflBciency,  to  rely  upon 
counsel.     12.  He  behaved  himself  conformable  to  that  blesfeed  example. 

13.  I  should  be  obliged  to  him,  if  he  will  gratify  me  in  that  particular. 

14.  May  is  par  excellence  the  month  of  flowers ;  it  is  delicious  at  this  season 
to  go  stroaming  about  the  fields.  15.  You  can't  bamboozle  me  with  such 
flimsy  excuses.  16.  I  hold  that  this  argument  is  irrefragable.  17.  Whether 
one  person  or  more  was  concerned  in  the  business,  does  not  yet  appear. 
18.  The  conspiracy  was  the  easier  discovered  from  its  being  known  to 
many.  19.  These  feasts  were  celebrated  to  the  honor  of  Osiris,  whom 
the  Greeks  called  Dionysius,  and  is  the  same  with  Bacchus.  20.  Such  a 
sight  was  enough  to  dumfounder  an  ordinary  man.  21.  This  will  eventu- 
ate in  jeopardizing  the  whole  party.  22.  Firstly,  he  has  conducted  mat- 
ters so  illy  that  his  fellow  countrymen  can  hereafter  repose  no  confidence 
in  him.  23.  All  these  things  required  abundance  oi  finesse  and  delicaiesse 
to  manage  with  advantage.  24.  When  I  made  some  d  propos  remarks 
upon  his  conduct,  he  began  to  quiz  me ;  but  he  had  better  have  let  it 
alone.  25.  A  large  part  of  the  meadows  and  cornfields  was  overflown. 
26.  Having  finished  my.  chores  before  sundown,  I  ht  a  fire.  27  The 
pleasures  of  the  understanding  are  more  preferable  than  those  of  the 
senses.  28.  "Virtue  confers  the  supremest  dignity  on  man,  and  should 
be  his  chiefest  desire.  29.  Temperance  and  exercise  are  excellent  pre- 
ventatives of  debility.  30.  I  admire  his  amiableness  and  candidness. 
31.  It  grieves  me  to  think  ^ithwhat  ardor  two  or  three  eminent  per- 
sona'^es  have  inchoated  such  a  course. 


PROPRIETY. 

1.  Every  year  a  new  flower,  in  his  judgment,  beats  all  the  old  ones, 
though  it  is  much  inferior  to  them  both  in  color  and  shape.  2.  The  [cere- 
monious, or  ceremonial  ?]  law  is  so  called  in  contradistinction  to  the 
moral  and  the  judicial  law.  3.  Come  often  ;  do  not  be  [ceremonious,  or 
ceremonial  ?].  4.  Meanwhile  the  Britons,  loft  to  shift  for  themselves, 
were  forced  to  call  in  the  Saxons  to  their  aid.  5.  Conscience  of  integrity 
supports  the  misfortunate.  C,  His  name  must  go  down  to  posterity  with 
distinguished  honor  in  the  public  records  of  the  nation.  7.  Every  thing 
goes  helter-skelter  and  topsy-turvy,  when  a  man  leaves  his  business  to  bo 
(lone  by  others.  8.  The  alone  principle  ; — a  likely  boy ; — he  is  consider- 
nble  of  a  man ; — the  balance  of  them ; — at  a  wide  remove ; — I  expect  he 
(lid  it ; — I  learned  him  the  lesson  ; — to  fall  trees  ; — he  conducts  well ; — 
hke  he  did  ; — we  started  directly  they  came  ; — I  feel  as  though  ; — equally 
as  well.  9.  What  [further,  or  farther  ?]  need  have  we  of  caution*  1(». 
Still  [further,  or  farther  ?],  what  evidence  have  we  of  this  ?  11.  We  may 
try  hard,  and  still  be  [furtlier,  or  farther  V]  I'rom  success  than  ever.  12.  If 
all  men  were  exemplary  in  their  conduct,  things  would  soon  take  a  new 
face,  and  religion  receive  a  mighty  encouragement.     18.  A  reader  can 


PRECISION.  279 

eften  see  with  half  an  eye  what  ails  a  sentence,  when  its  author  is  unable 
to  discover  any  mistake.  14.  He  passed  his  time  at  the  court  of  St.  James, 
currying  favor  with  the  minister.  15.  One  brave  [act,  or  action  ?]  often 
turns  the  fortunes  of  battle.  16.  Our  [acts,  or  actions?]  generally  pro- 
ceed from  instinct  or  impulse ;  our  [acts,  or  actions  ?]  are  more  frequently 
the  result  of  deliberation.  lY.  Learning  and  arts  were  but  then  getting 
up.  18.  One  is  in  a  bad  fix  that  has  to  spend  a  rainy  day  in  the  country. 
It  is  enough  to  give  most  people  the  blues.  19.  I  had  like  to  have  gotten 
a  broken  head.  20.  It  is  difficult  for  one  unaccustomed  to  [sophism,  or 
sophistry?]  to  succeed  in  a  [sophism,  or  sophistry?].  21.  This  per- 
formance was  much  at  one  with  the  other.  22.  I  had  a  great  mind  to 
tell  him  that  I  set  store  by  him.  23.  If  we  can  not  beat  our  adversaries 
with  logic,  we  should  at  least  not  allow  them  to  get  the  upper  hand  of  ua 
in  mildness  of  temper  and  properness  of  behavior. 


LESSON  LVIII.      6^'>r  A  . 

PRECISION. 

§*359.  The  third  essential  proioerty  of  style  is  Pee- 
cisiON.  This  term  is  derived  from  the  Latin  prmcidere^  to 
cut  off ;  and  the  property  so  called  consists  in  the  use  of 
such  words  as  exactly  convey  the  meaning,  and  nothing 
more.  Suppose  we  mean  to  say,  "  Cajsar  displayed  great 
courage  on  the  battle-field  " ;  w^ere  we  to  use  fortitude  in- 
stead of  courage^  we  should  violate  Precision,  because  the 
former  quality  is  displayed  in  supporting  pain,  the  latter  in 
meeting  danger.  We  should  be  guilty  of  the  same  fault, 
if  we  were  to  employ  both  words, — "  Cajsar  displayed  great 
courage  and  fortitude  on  the  battle-field," — ^because  it  would 
be  saying  more  than  we  mean. 

§  360.  Precision  is  most  frequently  violated  by  a  want 
of  discrimination  in  the  use  of  synonymous  terms ;  as  in  the 
example  above,  when  fortitude  is  substituted  for  courage. 

§  359.  What  is  tbe  third  essential  property  of  style  ?  From  what  is  the  word 
precision  derived  ?  In  what  does  the  quality  so  called  consist  ?  Illustrate  this 
with  the  sentence,  "  Csesar  displayed  great  courage  on  the  battle-field." 

S  360.  How  is  precision  most  frequently  violated  ?    When  is  one  word  isaid 


280  PRECISION. 

One  word  is  said  to  be  the  synonynie  of  another,  when 
it  means  the  same  thing  or  nearly  the  same :  as,  enough 
and  sufficient ;  active^  hrisk^  agile^  and  nimble.  In  such 
synonymous  terms  our  language  abounds,  in  consequence 
of  its  having  received  additions  from  many  diflferent  sources. 
While  a  very  few  of  these  differ  so  imj^erceptibly  that  they 
may  be  regarded  as  almost  identical  in  signification,  by  far 
the  greater  part  are  distinguished  by  delicate  shades  of 
meaning;  and  their  discriminate  use  at  once  denotes  the 
scholar  and  imparts  the  finest  effect  to  composition. 

The  habit  of  using  words  accurately  begets  the  habit  of  thinking  ac- 
curately ;  the  student,  therefore,  when  in  the  act  of  composing,  can  not 
be  too  careful  in  the  choice  of  the  words  he  employs, — can  not  make  a 
better  use  of  his  time  than  in  examining  and  comparing  the  various 
synonymous  expressions  that  present  themselves  to  his  mind,  and  in  thus 
enabling  himself  to  select  from  among  them  such  as  exactly  convey  his 
meaning,  and  nothing  more  or  less.  As  aids  in  this  improving  mental 
exercise,  he  will  find  Webster's  Quarto  Dictionary  and  Crabb's  "English 
Synonymes  "  specially  useful.  To  illustrate  this  subject,  a  few  synoivymes 
are  here  defined  in  contrast,  from  which  the  importance  of  using  them 
aright  will  be  apparent. 

I.  Custom,  habU.  Custom  is  the  frequent  repetition  of  the  same  act ; 
liahit  is  the  effect  of  such  repetition.  By  the  custom  of  early  rising,  we 
form  habits  of  diligence.  Custom  applies  to  men  collectively  or  individu- 
ally ;  habit  applies  to  them  as  individuals  only.  Every  nation  has  it* 
customs  ;  every  man  has  his  peculiar  liahits. 

II.  Surprise,  astonish,  amaze,  confound.  "We  are  surprised  at  what  is 
unexpected ;  astonished,  at  what  is  more  unexpected,  and  at  what  is  vast 
or  great ;  amazed,  at  what  is  incomprehensible,  or  what  unfavorably 
affects  our  interests ;  confounded,  at  what  is  shocking  or  terrible.  We  ai-e 
surprised  to  meet  a  friend,  at  an  hour  when  he  is  generally  engaged  at 
home ;  we  arc  astonished  to  meet  one  whom  we  supposed  to  be  across  the 
ocean ;  we  arc  amazed  to  meet  a  person  of  whose  death  we  have  been  in- 
formed ;  wc  are  confounded  to  hear  that  a  family  of  our  acquaintance 
have  been  poisoned. 

III.  Abhor,  detest.     To  abhor  implies  strong  dislike ;   to  detest  com- 

to  be  the  synonyme  of  another?  Why  arc  Kynonymous  tonus  numerous  in  our 
language?  What  is  said  respecting  their  shades  of  mo^in lug?  How  can  an  ex- 
amination into  these  delicate  difTorences  of  signification  benefit  the  student? 
Stiow  and  illustrate  the  diflTcrence  between  custom  and  fialM ;  between  eurprite^ 


PKECISION.  281 

biues  with  this  dishke  an  equally  strong  disapprobation.   We  abhor  being 
in  debt ;  we  detest  treachery. 

lY,  Onljj^  alone.  Only  imports  that  there  is  no  other  of  the  same 
kind ;  alone  imports  being  accompanied  by  no  other.  An  only  child  is 
one  that  has  neither  brother  nor  sister  ;  a  child  alone,  is  one  that  is  left 
by  itself.  There  is  a  difference,  therefore,  in  precise  language,  bet^veen 
the  two  phrases,  "  virtue  only  makes  us  happy,"  and  "  virtue  alone  makes 
us  happy."  The  former  implies  that  nothing  else  can  do  it ;  the  latter, 
that  virtue  itself,  unaccompanied  with  other  advantages,  is  sufficient  to 
insure  our  happiness. 

V.  Entire,  complete.  A  thing  is  entire  when  it  wants  none  of  its  parts  ; 
complete,  when  it  lacks  none  of  its  appendages.  A  man  may  have  an 
entire  house  to  himself,  and  yet  not  have  one  complete  apartment. 

VI.  Enough,  sufficient.  Miough,  properly  speaking,  has  reference  to 
the  quantity  one  wishes  to  have;  sufficient,  to  that  which  one  needs. 
The  former,  therefore,  generally  implies  more  than  the  latter.  The  miser 
may  have  sufficient,  but  never  has  enough. 

VII.  Avow,  acknowledge,  confess.  Each  of  these  words  implies  the 
admission  of  a  fact,  but  under  different  circumstances.  To  avow  sup- 
poses the  person  to  glory  in  the  admission ;  to  acknowledge  implies  a  small 
fault,  for  which  the  acknowledgment  compensates  ;  to  cojifess  is  used  in 
connection  with  greater  offences.  A  patriot  avows  his  opposition  to  a 
tyrant,  and  is  applauded  ;  a  gentleman  acknoioledges  his  mistake,  and  is 
forgiven ;  a  prisoner  confesses  his  crime,  and  is  punished. 

§  361.  The  precise  writer  rejects  all  unnecessary  words : 

he  does  not,  for  instance,  say  that  such  a  thing  can  not 

possibly  be,  or  must  necessarily  be,  because  possibly  and 

necessarily  imply  nothing  more  than  can  and  must.     He 

does  not,  after  having  made  a  statement,  repeat  it  without 

any  modification  of  the  idea,  in  several  different  clauses, 

imagining  that  he  is  thereby  adding  to  what  has  been  said. 

Such  unmeaning  repetitions  are  called  redundancies,  and  no 

other  fault  so  enfeebles  style. 

Addison,  at  the  beginning  of  his  Cato,  is  guilty  of  several  gross  re- 
dundancies : — 


astonish^  amaze,  and  confound ;  between  a^Jwr  and  detest ;  between  only  and 
alone;  between  entire  and  complete;  between  enough  and  sufficient;  between 
avow,  acknowledge,  and  confess. 

§  361.  What  is  said  of  the  precise  writer  ?    What  are  radundancies  ?    What  is 
their  effect  on  style?    Who  is  mentioned  as  guilty  of  this  fault?    Kepeat  the 


282  fEECISION. 

"  The  dawn  is  overcaBt,  the  morning  lowere, 
And  heavUy  in  clouds  brings  on  the  day» 
The  great,  the  important  day,  big  with  the  fate 
Of  Cato  and  of  Rome." 

In  the  first  two  lines,  the  same  sentiment  is  three  times  repeated  in 
different  words.  "  The  dawn  is  overcast,"  means  no  more  than  "  the 
morning  lowers  " ;  and  both  these  expressions  denote  precisely  the  samo 
thing  as  the  line  that  follows.  In  the  third  line,  three  synon}Tnous  ex- 
pressions appear, — **  the  great^  the  important  day,  big  with  the  fate  ". 

In  revising  a  composition,  special  regard  must  be  had  to  Precision. 
Unnecessary  words  (and  sometimes  many  will  be  found)  must  be  un- 
sparingly pruned  out.  The  best  method  of  avoiding  such  superfluities, 
or  of  breaking  up  a  loose  style,  when  once  formed,  is  to  endeavor,  before 
writing,  to  get  a  well-defined  conception  of  the  subject.  Redundancies 
often  proceed  from  the  writer's  not  having  any  precise  idea  himself  of 
what  he  wants  to  say. 

§  362.  Another  violation  of  Precision  consists  in  the  af- 
fected substitution  for  the  names  of  persons  or  the  terms 
which  we  ordinarily  apply  to  abstract  ideas,  circumlocutions 
expressive  of  some  attribute,  which  may  belong  to  another 
object,  dnd  is  therefore  liable  to  be  mistaken  by  the  reader. 
Thus,  Shaftesbury,  devoting  several  images  of  one  of  his  worlcs 
to  Aristotle,  names  him  only  as  "  the  master  critic,"  "  the 
mighty  genius  and  judge  of  art,"  "the  prince  of  critics," 
"  the  grand  master  of  art,"  and  "  the  consummate  philolo- 
gist,"— leaving  the  reader  to  infer  who  is  meant  by  these 
high-sounding  titles.  So,  in  another  passage,  without  des- 
ignating them  by  name,  he  alludes  to  Homer,  Socrates,  and 
Plato,  respectively,  as  "  the  grand  poetic  sire,"  "  the  philo- 
sophical patriarch,"  and  "his  disciple  of  noble  birth  and 
lofty  genius  ". 

In  like  manner,  when  the  proper  name  has  been  mentioned,  an  allu- 
sion to  the  same  individual  by  means  of  a  circumlocution  is  apt  to  give 
the  reader  a  wrong  impression ;  as,  "  Literary  and  scientific  men  hastened 

passage,  and  point  out  tho  redundancies.  In  revising  a  composition,  to  what 
must  special  regard  bo  had  ?  Wliat  is  the  best  method  of  avoiding  superflnitles 
and  breaking  up  a  loose  style  ?    From  what  do  redundancies  often  proceed  ? 

§  3(52.  What  other  violation  of  precision  is  here  alluded  to  ?  Show  how  Shaftes- 
bury violates  this  principle.  When  tlie  proper  name  has  been  mentioned,  what 
is  the  effect  of  alluding  lo  tho  earn©  individual  by  means  of  a  circumlocution  ?  II* 
lustrate  thiss 


PKECISION.  283 

to  the  court  of  Charlemagne,  anxious  to  secure  the  favor  of  the  greatest 
monarch  of  his  age."  A  reader  ignorant  of  history  might  suppose  that 
it  was  not  Charlemagne's  favor,  but  that  of  some  other  monarch  residing 
at  his  court,  that  they  were  desirous  of  securing.  A  slight  change  will 
prevent  the  possibiUty  of  mistake  as  to  the  meaning :  "  Anxious  to 
secure  the  favor  of  Charlemagne,  literary  and  scientific  men  hastened  to 
his  court." 

EXEECISE. 
In  the  following  sentences,  when  two  synonymes  are 
presented  within  brackets,  select  the  proper   one;  when 
Precision  is  violated,  correct  the  error : — 

1.  He  [only,  or  alone  ?]  of  all  their  number  had  sufficient  resolution 
to  declare  himselfready  to  proceed. — This  circumstance  [only,  or  alone?] 
is  sufficient  to  prove  the  worthlessness  of  the  criticism. — On  questioning 
them,  they  all  denied  knowledge  of  the  fact  except  one  [only,  or  alone  ?], 
in  whose  countenance  I  traced  evident  signs  of  guilt.  2.  As  soon  as  you 
have  heard  [enough,  or  sufficient  ?]  music,  we  will  adjourn  to  the  other 
apartment. — I  am  obliged  to  remain  here,  because  I  have  not  [enough, 
or  sufficient?]  money  to  proceed  on  my  journey.  3.  We  [avow,  ac- 
knowledge, or  confess?]  an  omission 'of  duty; — we a  debt; — the 

crimmal  can  not  be  persuaded  to ; — the  martyr s  his  faith. 

4.  The  equipment  of  the  ship  is  [entire,  or  complete  ?].  6.  A  being  who 
has  nothing  ta  pardon  or  forgive  in  himself  may  reward  every  man  ac- 
cording to  his  works.  6.  The  physician  enjoined  temperance  and  ab- 
stinence on  his  patient.  7.  There  was  no  tenant  in  the  house ;  it  was 
[vacant,  or  empty  ?]. — The  house  was  stripped  of  its  furniture ;  it  was 
entirely  [vacant,  or  empty  ?]. — Mr.  D.'s  death  has  left  a  [vacant,  or 
empty  ?]  seat  in  the  Board.  8.  Paley  has  said  that  man  is  a  bundle  of 
[customs,  or  habits  ?]. — Many  great  men  have  the  [custom,  or  habit?] 
of  taking  snuflf. — The  [custom,  or  habit  ?]  of  going  to  church  may  pro- 
duce [customs,  or  habits  ?]  of  piety.  9.  The  general  said  that  he  [re- 
ceived, or  accepted  ?]  with  pride  and  satisfaction  this  token  of  their 
friendship.  10.  Though  numerous  applications  were  made  for  the  pris- 
oner's [forgiveness,  or  pardon?],  they  were  all  [unsuccessful,  or  ineffec- 
tual ?].  11.  The  pleasures  of  imagination  are  more  preferable  than  those 
of  sense.  12.  This  is  the  chiefest  objection  that  I  have  to  such  a  course. 
13.  No  man  of  spirit  can  acquiesce  in,  and  remain  satisfied  with,  this  de- 
cision. 14.  This  wavering  and  unsettled  policy  can  not  be  too  strongly 
condemned.  15.  I  am  certain  and  confident  that  the  account  I  have  given 
is  correct  and  true.  16.  He  then  made  his  statement  and  related  his 
story.  17.  We  rested  beneath  the  umbrageous  shadow  of  a  shady  oak, 
and  then  again  resumed  our  journey  anew.  18.  The  brightness  of  pros- 
perity, shining  on  the  anticipations  of  futurity,  casts  the  shadows  of  ad- 
versity into  the  shade,  and  causes  the  prospects  of  the  future  to  look 
bright.  19.  We  often  conjure  up  grounds  of  apprehension,  and  givp 
ourselves  unnecessary  uneasiness.  20.  The  magistrate  questioned  the 
prisoner  minutely  and  examined  him  at  length.  21.  Now,  if  the  fabric 
of  the  mind  or  temper  appeared  to  us  such  as  it  really  is  ;  if  we  saw  it 
impossible  to  remove  hence  any  one  good  or  orderly  affection,  or  to  in- 


284r.  C'LEAKi<E6t;,   OK  PEKSPICUITY. 

troduce  auy  ill  or  disorderly  one,  without  drawing  on,  in  some  degree, 
that  dissolute  state  which,  at  its  height,  is  confessed  to  be  so  miserable, — 
it  would  then,  undoubtedly,  be  confessed,  that  since  no  ill,  immoral,  or 
unjust  action,  can  be  committed  without  either  a  new  inroad  and  breach 
on  the  temper  and  passions,  or  a  further  advancing  of  that  execution 
already  done ;  whoever  did  ill,  or  acted  in  prejudice  to  his  integrity, 
good  nature,  or  worth,  would,  of  necessity,  act  with  greater  cruelty  tow- 
ards himself,  than  he  Avho  scrupled  not  to  swallow  what  was  poison- 
ous, or  who,  with  his  own  hands,  should  voluntarily  mangle  or  wound 
his  outward  form  or  constitution,  natural  limbs,  or  body.  22.  Constan- 
tino was  constantly  receiving  presents,  which  were  forwarded  from  all 
quarters  to  the  great  Christian  emperor. 


LESSON  LIX. 

CLEARNESS,     OR    PERSPICUITY. 

§  363.  The  fourth  essential  property  of  style  is  Clear- 
ness, or  Perspicuity  ;  which  consists  in  such  a  use  and 
arrangement  of  words  and  clauses  as  at  once  distinctly  indi- 
cate the  meaning  of  the  writer  or  sj^eaker.     To  a  certain 
extent,  this  quality  involves  the  three  already  considered ; 
that  is,  other  things   being  equal,  the  greater  the  Purity, 
Propriety,  and  Precision,  of  a  sentence,  the  clearer  it  will 
be.     Yet  these  properties  may  belong,  in  a  high  degree,  to 
a  style  which  is  far  from  perspicuous.     Something  more  is 
necessary  to  constitute  the  quality  under  consideration. 
§  364.  The  faults  opposed  to  Clearness  are, 
I.    Obscurity^  which  consists  in  the  use  of  words  and  con- 
structions from  which  it  is  difficult  to  gather  any  mean- 
ing at  all. 
II.  Equivocation^  which  consists  in  the  use  of  words  sus- 
ceptible, in  the  connection  in  which  they  are  placed,  of 
more  than  one  interpretation. 

§  363.  What  1b  the  fourth  oescntlnl  property  of  ntyle?    In  what  docs  it  con- 
ribt  ?    What  does  clearnees,  to  a  certain  extent,  involve  ? 

f  364.  Enumerate  and  define  the  throe  fault*  oppoeed  to  cleameee. 


CLEARNESS,   OR   PERSPICUITY.  285 

III.  Ambiguity,  which  consists  in  such  an  arrangement  of 
words  or  clauses  as  leaves  the  reader  in  doubt  between 
two  different  significations. 
§  365.    OhscMrity, — Nothing  disgusts  us  more  with  a  com- 
position than  to  find  difficulty  in  arriving  at  its  meaning. 
Whatever  effect  the  thoughts  it  embodies  might  have  pro- 
duced had  they  been  clearly  expressed,  is  inevitably  lost 
while  the  reader  is  pondering  its  intricate  periods.    Obscurity 
results  firora  various  causes,  of  which  the  principal  are  as  fol- 
lows : — 

I.  An  improper  ellipsis. 

This  figure,  as  we  have  seen  in  §  SI*?,  authorizes  the  omission  of 
words  niecessary  to  the  construction,  but  not  to  the  sense.  Whenever 
the  omission  of  a  word  renders  the  meaning  of  a  sentence  unintelligible, 
the  ellipsis  becomes  improper.  A  writer  in  The  Guardian  uses  this  ex- 
pression :  "  He  is  inspired  with  a  true  sense  of  that  function."  The 
meaning  is  not  intelligible  till  we  put  in  the  words  improperly  left  out : 
"  He  is  inspired  with  a  true  sense  of  the  importance  of  that  function." 
"  Arbitrary  power,"  says  another,  "  I  look  upon  as  a  greater  evil  than 
anarchy  itself,  as  much  as  a  savage  is  a  happier  state  of  life  than  a  gal- 
ley-slave."  We  can  not  properly  call  a  savage  or  a  galley-slave  a  state 
of  life,  though  we  may  with  propriety  compare  their  conditions.  The 
obscurity  is  removed  by  doing  away  with  the  ellipsis  :  "  as  much  as  the 
state  of  a  savage  is  happier  than  that  of  a  galley-slave." 

n.  A  had  arrangement. 

Some  sentences  have  their  parts  so  arranged  that,  on  commencing 
them,  we  imagine  they  will  convey  a  certain  meaning,  which  is  quite 
different  from  what  we  find  they  really  signify  when  we  get  to  their 
close.  Thus,  in  The  Spectator  the  following  sentence  occurs :  "  I  have 
hopes  that  when  Will  confronts  him,  and  all  tlie  ladies  in  whose  behalf  he 
engages  him  cast  kind  looks  and  wishes  of  success  at  their  champion,  he 
will  have  some  shame."  On  hearing  the  first  part  of  the  sentence,,  we 
naturally  imagine  that  Will  is  to  confront  all  the  ladies ;  but  we  soon 
find  that  it  is  necessary  to  construe  this  clause  with  the  verb  cast.     To 

§  365.  What  feeling  ia  produced  in  the  reader  by  a  composition  difficult  to  be 
nnderetood  ?  What  is  the  first  source  of  obscurity  ?  When  is  an  ellipsis  im- 
proper ?  Give  examples  of  improper  ellipses.  Wli.it  is  the  second  source  of 
obscurity  ?  What  false  impression  do  we  receive  from  some  sentences  whoso 
parts  are  improperly  arranged  ?  Illustrate  this  error  from  The  Spectator,  and 
•how  how  it  may  be  corrected.    What  words  are  most  frequently  misplaced  iu 


286  CLEARNESS,   OR   PERSPICUITY. 

correct  the  error,  the  whole  Bentence  must  be  remodelled,  or  we  may 
simply  introduce  the  adverb  wJien  after  and :  "  I  have  hopes  that  when 
Will  confronts  him,  and  when  all  the  ladies,"  &c. 

The  words  most  frequently  misplaced  in  such  a  way  as  to  involve 
obscurity  are  adverbs,  particularly  only  and  not  only.  If  these  words  are 
separated  from  what  they  are  intended  to  modify,  the  meaning  of  thu 
whole  sentence  is  obscured.  "  He  not  only  owns  a  house,  but  also  a 
large  farm."  Not  only^  as  it  now  stands,  modifies  the  verb  own&  ;  and 
from  the  beginning  of  the  sentence  one  naturally  supposes  that  another 
verb  is  to  follow, — that  he  not  only  owns  the  house,  but  lives  in  it,  or 
something  of  the  kind.  Whereas,  not  only  is  intended  to  modify  hjoxise, 
and  should  therefore  be  placed  immediately  before  it :  "  He  owns,  not 
only  a  house,  but  also  a  large  farm." 

Sometimes  a  faulty  arrangement  of  adjuncts  or  clauses  produces  a 
ludicrous  combination  of  ideas ;  as  when  we  say,  "  Here  is  a  horse 
ploughing  with  one  eye,"  instead  of,  "Hero  is  a  horse  with  one  eye 
ploughing."  From  the  former  sentence  we  would  infer  that  the  horse 
was  turning  up  the  ground  with  one  of  his  organs  of  vision.  So,  in  the 
following  :  "  He  was  at  a  window  in  Lichfield,  where  a  party  of  royal- 
ists had  fortified  themselves,  taking  a  view  of  the  cathedral."  The  roy- 
alists would  hardly  go  to  the  trouble  of  fortifying  themselves  merely  for 
the  purpose  of  taking  a  view  of  the  cathedral.  It  should  read  thus  :  "  He 
was  at  a  window  in  Lichfield,  taking  a  view  of  the  cathedral,  where  a 
party,"  &c. 

The  sentences  given  above  as  examples  would  be  amhigiious  accord, 
ing  to  our  definition  of  that  term,  if  there  were  any  other  than  an  ab- 
surd meaning  to  be  gleaned  from  the  construction  which  we  first  natu- 
rally put  upon  them.  As  this  is  not  the  case,  however,  they  fall  under 
the  head  we  are  now  considering, — obscurity.  It  may  be  argued  that,  in 
these  and  similar  examples,  the  obscurity  will  quickly  be  removed  if  the 
reader  uses  the  least  reflection.  But  this  is  not  sufficient ;  we  must  have 
no  obscurity  to  be  removed.  Clearness  requires,  according  to  Quin- 
tilian,  "  not  that  the  reader  may  understand  if  he  will,  but  that  he  mttst 
understand  whether  ho  will  or  not ". 

in.  The  use  of  the  same  loord  in  different  senses. 


8nch  a  way  as  to  involve  obecnrity  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  separating  thom  from 
what  they  are  intended  to  modify  ?  Give  an  example  of  this  error,  show  how  it 
occaBious  obscurity,  and  correct  it.  Wliat  docs  a  faulty  arrangement  of  adjuncts 
and  clauses  sometimes  produce  ?  Give  examples,  and  correct  the  errors  they 
contain.  Why  do  we  not  rank  these  cases  under  the  bead  of  ambiguous  construc- 
tions ?  What  may  be  argued  with  respect  to  them  ?  Is  this  sufficient  ?  WTiat 
docs  Quintilian  say  respecting  clearness  ?  What  is  the  third  source  of  ob»?curity  * 


CLEAENESS,   OR  PEESPICUITT.  287 

A  word  should  not  be  used  in  different  senses  in  the  same  sentence. 
Thus,  "  He  presents  more  and  more  convincing  arguments  than  his  ad- 
versary." Here  the  word  more  first  occurs  as  an  adjective,  and  is  pres- 
ently,  to  the  great  confusion  of  the  reader,  repeated  as  an  adverb,  the 
sign  of  the  comparative  degree.  It  should  be :  "He  presents  more  nu- 
meroiis  and  more  convincing  arguments  than  his  adversary," — more  being 
here  in  each  case  an  adverb. 

The  words  oftenest  used  in  this  way  are  pronouns,  particularly  the 
personals  and  relatives.  Depending  for  their  signification  on  the  sub- 
stantives for  which  they  stand,  if  they  are  used  with  reference  to  differ- 
ent objects,  their  meaning  is  of  course, varied,  and  this  should  be  strictly 
avoided  in  the  progress  of  a  sentence.  Examples  of  this  fault  follow. 
"  Tliey  were  persons  of  moderate  intellects,  even  before  they  were  impaired 
by  tMr  passions."  Here,  the  first  they  refers  to  certain  persons ;  the 
second,  to  the  noun  intellects,  while  the  same  pronoun  in  the  possessive 
case,  their,  refers  again  to  the  persons  in  question.  To  correct  the  error, 
we  must  either  remodel  the  whole,  or  (though  it  sounds  gtiff  in  so  short 
a  sentence)  alter  the  second  ifi'ey  to  the  latter : — "  They  were  persons  of 
moderate  intellects,  even  before  the  latter  were  impaired  by  their  pas- 
sions." Again  :  "  Lysias  promised  his  father  that  he  would  never  forget 
his  advice."  There  is  no  equivocation  here ;  for  it  is  evident  at  once 
that,  though  the  first  Jiis,  and  he,  refer  to  Lysias,  the  second  his  has 
reference  to  the  father ;  yet  such  constructions  are  highly  objectionable. 
This  sentence,  as  well  as  others  like  it,  is  most  neatly  corrected  by  sub- 
stituting the  exact  words  of  the  speaker  for  the  substance  of  what  he 
eaid ;  as,  "  Lysias  promised  his  father,  '  I  will  never  forget  thy  advice.'  " 

Not  only  does  this  incorrect  use  of  pronouns  produce  obscurity,  it  is 
also  inconsistent  with  Harmony  and  Strength.  In  composing,  therefore, 
it  is  well  constantly  to  bear  in  mind  the  rule, — Do  not  make  the  same 
pronoun  refer  to  different  objects  in,  the  same  sentence.  This  is  sometimes 
a  difficult  rule  to  follow,  as  every  careful  writer  must  have  found.  Rein- 
hard  says,  in  his  Memoirs,  "  I  have  always  had  considerable  difficulty  in 
making  a  proper  use  of  pronouns.  Indeed,  I  have  taken  great  pains  so 
to  use  them,  that  all  ambiguity  by  the  reference  to  a  wrong  antecedent 
should  be  impossible,  and  yet  have  often  failed  in  the  attempt."  Not- 
withstanding this  difficulty,  the  principle  involved  is  of  such  importance 
that  it  should  be  carried  out,  even  if  the  whole  train  of  thought  has  to 
be  put  in  a  different  form  at  a  considerable  expense  of  time  and  trouble. 

Illustrate  this,  and  show  how  the  error  may  he  corrected.  What  words  are 
oftenest  used  in  this  way?  How  is  it  that  they  may  bear  different  significations  ? 
Gire  an  example.  When  such  an  error  occurs  in  a  sentence  containing  an  indi- 
rect quotation,  how  may  it  be  corrected  ?  What  other  faults  besides  obscurity 
does  this  incorrect  use  of  pronouns  involve  ?     Repeat  the  rule.     What  does 


288  CLEARNESS,   OR  PERSPICUITT. 

IV.  Complicated  sentential  structure. 

When  the  structure  of  a  sentence  is  much  involved,  especially  when 
its  parts  differ  in  form,  or  when  long  or  abrupt  parentheses  are  intro- 
duced, obscurity  is  apt  to  result.  This  fault  is  more  common  with  old 
writers  than  among  those  of  the  present  day.  It  violates,  not  only  the 
rides  of  Clearness,  but  also  those  of  Unity ;  under  which  latter  subject  it 
will  be  illustrated,  and  the  best  modes  of  correction  will  be  pointed  out. 

V.  Jjong  sentences.  These  are  always  a  source  of  ob- 
scurity, unless  the  members  composing  them  are  similar  in 
their  structure.  There  is  a  tendency  in  most  young  writers 
to  make  their  sentences  too  long.  The  other  extreme  is  safer 
than  this  ;  but  either  is  to  be  avoided.  The  most  pleasing 
style  in  this  respect  is  one  characterized  by  variety ;  one  in 
which  long  and  short  sentences  are  judiciously  alternated. 

VI.  Technical  terms. 

Terms  belonging  to  a  particular  trade,  business,  or  science,  not  being 
understood  by  the  generality  of  readers,  should  be  strictly  avoided,  es- 
pecially in  poetry.  Dryden,  however,  was  of  the  contrary  opinion.  "  As 
those,"  says  he,  "  who  in  a  logical  disputation  keep  to  general  terms 
woidd  hide  a  fallacy,  so  those  who  do  it  in  any  poetical  description  would 
veil  their  ignorance."  Accordingly,  in  his  translation  of  the  .Eneid,  he 
indulges  in  the  following  technicalities  : — 

"  Tack  to  the  larboard^  and  stand  offio  sea, 
Veer  starboard  sea  and  land." 

Technical'  terms  are  allowable  only  in  scientific  treatises,  where  we  ex- 
pect to  find  them ;  and  in  comedy  and  fiction,  where  they  are  sometimes 
introduced  into  dialogue  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  individual  pecu- 
liarities. 

§  366.  Equivocation. — To  avoid  this  fault,  it  is  not 
necessary  that  we  reject  all  words  of  more  than  one  signifi- 

Reinhard  say  respecting  it?  What  Is  the  fourth  source  of  obscurity  ?  What  Is 
meant  hy  this  ?  What  besides  a  want  of  clearness  results  from  such  Involved 
constructions?  What  Is  the  fifth  source  of  obscurity?  In  what  case  only  lea 
long  sentence  perspicuous  ?  In  whom  Is  there  a  tendency  to  long  sentences  ? 
What  is  the  best  rule,  as  regards  length  of  sentences?  What  is  ihe  sixth  source 
of  obscurity  ?  Why  should  technical  terms  l)e  avoided  ?  Wliat  was  Drj'den's 
opinion  on  this  point  ?  Show  how  he  has  acted  on  this  opinion  in  his  translation 
of  the  iEneld.    In  what  compositions  are  technical  terms  allowable  ? 

§  360.  Wliat  is  meant  by  an  equivocal  term  ?    When  may  such  a  term  be  used, 


CLEAENESS,    OK   PERSPICUITY.  289 

cation  ;  for,  in  that  case,  our  vocabulary  would  become  ex- 
ceedingly limited,  and  by  far  the  greater  part  of  our  lan- 
guage would  be  utterly  useless.  But  a  regard  for  Perspicuity 
requires  us  to  reject  an  equivocal  term  except  when  its  con- 
nection with  other  words  in  any  particular  case  distinctly 
indicates  which  of  its  significations,  as  there  used,  it  bears. 
This  connection  will  almost  always  determine  the  meaning 
so  clearly  that  the  true  sense  will  be  the  only  one  suggested. 
Thus,  the  word  jyound  signifies  both  the  sum  of  twenty  shil- 
lings  sterling  and  sixteen  ounces  a'coirdupois.  Yet,  if  a 
person  tells  me  that  he  rents  a  house  for  fifty  pounds  a  year, 
or  that  he  has  bought  fifty  pounds  of  meat,  there  will  be  no 
lack  of  Perspicuity, — the  idea  of  weight  will  not  present 
itself  to  my  mind  in  the  one  case,  or  that  of  money  in  the 
other.  Sometimes,  however,  the  connection  is  insufficient  to 
determine  the  meaning ;  and  the  expression,  being  thus  sus- 
ceptible of  a  twofold  interpretation,  must  be  avoided.  Ex- 
amples of  the  different  Idnds  of  equivocation  are  presented 
below,  together  with  the  best  modes  of  correction : — 

I.  "  I  am  persuaded  that  neither  death  nor  life  will  be  able  to  sepa- 
rate us  from  the  love  of  God."  Here  of  is  equivocal ;  we  can  not  tell 
whether  the  meaning  is  the  love  which  we  bear  to  God,  or  that  which 
He  bears  to  us.  If  the  former  is  intended,  it  should  be  "  our  love  to 
God  "  ;  if  the  latter,  "  God's  love  to  us  ".  So,  "  the  reformation  of  Luther  " 
means  either  the  change  wrought  in  him,  or  that  brought  about  by 
him.  The  latter  signification  may  be  denoted  by  commencing  reforma- 
tion with  a  capital ;  as,  in  this  sense,  it  is  an  important  historical  event. 

II.  "  They  were  both  more  ancient  than  Zoroaster,  or  Zerdusht." 
Here,  or  is  equivocal.  This  conjunction  connects  either  equivalents  or 
substitutes.  Hence,  the  reader  unacquainted  with  Persian  history  may 
be  at  a  loss  to  know  whether  Zoroaster  and  Zerdusht  are  the  same  per- 
son or  different  ones.  According  to  the  system  of  punctuation  laid  down 
in  this  volume,  the  comma  before  or  denotes  that  they  are  one  and  the 
same,  and  its  omission  would  signify  that  two  persons  were  intended. 


and  when  must  it  be  avoided  ?    What  generally  determines  the  meaning  of  an 
equivocal  word  ?    Give  an  example. 

Quote  a  sentence  in  which  o/is  equivocal;  point  out  the  two  interpretations 
of  which  it  is  susceptible  ;  and  show  what  alterations  should  be  made  to  express 

13 


CLEARNESS,   OR  PERSPICUITY. 

Yet,  as  many  are  unacquainted  with  punctuation,  it  is  best,  when  this 
conjunction  is  used  in  the  latter  sense, — that  is,  as  a  connective  of  sub- 
stitutes,— to  introduce  its  correlative  either  before  the  first  of  the  words 
so  connected.  "  They  were  both  more  ancient  than  either  Zoroaster  or 
Zerdusht ",  would  denote  that  they  were  different  persons,  beyond  the 
possibility  of  mistake. 

III.  "  I  have  long  since  learned  to  like  nothing  but  what  you  do." 
Do  is  equivocal ;  we  can  not  tell  whether  it  is  an  auxiliary  or  a  principal 
verb, — whether  the  meaning  is  to  like  nothing  hut  wliat  you  like,  or  noth- 
ing hut  what  you  do.  If  the  former  is  intended,  we  ehould  change  do  to 
like^  or  else  say  nothing  hut  wliat  pleases  you. 

IV.  "Lysias  promised  his  father  that  he  would  never  forget  his 
friends."  Properly  speaking,  the  last  his  refers  to  the  same  antecedent 
as  the  first ;  and  the  meaning  is,  that  he  would  never  forget  his  own 
(Lysias's)  friends.  If  this  is  the  author's  meaning,  the  sentence  is  gram- 
matically correct ;  yet,  as  it  may  be  misunderstood  by  those  who  do  not 
look  closely  at  grammatical  relations,  it  would  be  well  to  alter  the  form 
according  to  the  suggestion  touching  an  analogous  case  in  §  305 ; 
"  Lysias  promised  his  father,  *  I  will  never  forget  thy  [or  my']  friends.' " 

V.  "He  aimed  at  nothing  less  than  the  crown."  Owing  to  the 
equivocal  expression  nothing  less  than,  this  sentence  may  denote  either, 
"  Nothing  was  less  auned  at  by  him  than  the  crown ;  "  or,  "  Nothing  in- 
ferior to  the  crown  could  satisfy  his  ambition." 

§  367.  Ambiguity/. — Tliis  fault,  also,  leaves  the  reader  in 
doubt  between  two  meanings ;  but  this  doubt  is  occasioned, 
not  by  the  use  of  equivocal  terms,  but  by  a  faulty  arrange- 
ment of  words  or  clauses.  Both  equivocation  and  ambiguity, 
but  particularly  the  latter,  are  faults  of  frequent  occurrence 
in  composition ;  from  the  fact  that  a  writer  whose  mind  is 
pre-occupied  with  one  of  the  significations  of  an  expression, 
which  he  designs  it  to  convey,  is  not  likely  to  notice  that  it 
also  bears  another.  The  commonest  varieties  of  ambiguity 
are  illustrated  in  the  following  examples : — 

I.  The  proper  place  for  a  relative  pronoun  la  immediately  after  its 

each  meaning  clearly.  Treat  In  this  same  manner  a  ecntence  in  which  or  is 
equivocal ;  one  in  which  do  is  equivocal ;  one  in  which  his  is  equivocal ;  one  in 
which  the  cxprcBsion  nothing  less  than  is  equivocal. 

§  807.  By  what  is  ambiguity  occasioned  f  What  renders  it  a  fault  of  frequent 
occurrence?  What  part  of  speech,  improperly  placed,  often  occasions  am- 
biguity ?    Where  should  the  relative  pronoun  stand  ?    Correct  the  eentence,  "  A 


EXERCISE   ON  CLEARNESS.  291 

antecedent ;  and,  if  it  occupies  any  other  place,  the  sentence,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule,  should  be  so  changed  as  to  allow  it  to  stand  in  that  position. 
Thus,  instead  of,  "  A  servant  will  obey  a  master's  orders  whom  he  loves," 
we  should  have,  "  A  servant  will  obey  the  orders  of  a  master  whom  he 
loves."  Yet,  as  this  principle  is  constantly  violated  in  composition,  we 
are  sometimes  at  a  loss  to  determine  to  which  of  two  antecedent  sub- 
stantives a  relative  belongs.  "  Solomon,  the  son  of  David,  who  built  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem,  was  a  wise  and  powerful  monarch." — "  Solomon, 
the  son  of  David,  who  was  persecuted  by  Saul,  was  a  wise  and  powerful 
monarch."  In  these  two  sentences,  who  is  similarly  situated  ;  yet  in  the 
former  it  relates  to  Solomon,  and  in  the  latter  to  David.  A  perspicuous 
writer  would  avoid  the  possibility  of  misconception  by  changing  both : — 
"  Solomon,  the  son  of  David  and  builder  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  was 
a  wise  and  powerful  monarch." — "  Solomon,  whose  father  David  was 
persecuted  by  Saul,  was,"  &c. 

II.  The  peculiar  position  of  a  substantive  sometimes  occasions  am- 
biguity, particularly  in  poetry,  when  the  object  is  placed  before  the  verb. 
In  the  sentence,  "  And  thus  the  son  the  fervent  sire  addressed,"  we  are 
unable  to  say  whether  the  son  or  the  sire  was  the  speaker.  The  mean- 
ing may  be  fixed  in  either  way  by  substituting  his  for  ilie^  before  the  ob- 
ject ;  for,  according  to  the  idiom  of  our  language,  the  possessive  pronoun 
is,  in  such  cases,  more  properly  joined  to  the  regimen  of  a  verb  than  to 
its  nominative.  If  the  son  was  the  speaker,  the  line  should  run,  "  And 
thus  the  son  ^is  fervent  sire  addressed ;  "  if  he  was  the  party  spoken  to, 
"  And  thus  his  son  the  fervent  sire  addressed." 


LESSON    LX. 

EXERCISE     ON     CLEARNESS. 

In  the  following  sentences,  correct  such  expressions  as 

are  not  perspicuous  : — 

1.  He  talks  all  the  way  up  stairs  to  a  visit.  2.  God  begins  His  cure 
by  caustics,  by  incisions  and  instruments  of  vexation,  to  try  if  the  dis- 
ease that  will  not  yield  to  the  allectives  of  cordials  and  perfumes,  fric- 

servant  will  obey  a  master's  orders  whom  he  loves."  Show  how  the  relative 
w/lo,  similarly  placed  in  two  different  sentences,  may  refer  to  different  antece- 
dents. How  may  these  sentences  be  altered,  to  make  the  reference  clear?  In 
poetry,  from  what  does  ambiguity  sometimes  proceed  ?  Give  an  example,  and 
show  how  the  meaning  may  be  determined. 


292  EXEECISE  ON   CLEARNESS. 

tions  and  baths,  muy  be  forced  out  by  deleterics,  scarifications,  and 
more  salutary,  but  less  pleasing,  physic.  3.  Some  productions  of  nature 
rise  in  value  according  as  they  more  or  less  resemble  art.  4.  The  farmer 
went  to  his  neighbor,  and  told  him  that  his  cattle  were  in  his  field.  5. 
He  may  be  said  to  have  saved  the  life  of  a  citizen,  and  consequently  en- 
titled to  the  reward.  6.  I  perceived  it  had  been  scoured  with  half  an 
eye.  V.  The  love  of  a  parent  is  one  of  the  strongest  passions  implanted 
in  the  heart.  8.  So  obscure  are  Carlyle's  sentences  that  nine  tenths  of 
his  readers  do  not  receive  any  idea  from  them.  [Equivocal: — does  it 
mean  that  only  one  tenth  of  his  readers  understand  them  ;  or  tJiat,  though 
nine  tenths  may  not  do  so,  eight  tentlis  may  ?  Alter  the  sentence  in  two  way.% 
so  that  it  may  perspicuously  express  both  tliese  ideas.^  9.  Few  kings  have 
been  more  energetic  than  Menes,  or  [equivocal]  Misraim.  10.  The  young 
man  did  not  want  natural  talents ;  but  the  father  of  him  was  a  coxcomb, 
who  aifected  being  a  fine  gentleman  so  unmercifully,  that  he  could  not 
endure  in  his  sight,  or  the  frequent  mention  of,  one  who  was  his  son, 
growing  into  manhood,  and  thrusting  him  out  of  the  gay  world.  11. 
We  are  naturally  inclined  to  praise  who  praise  us,  and  to  flatter  who 
Hatter  us.  12.  the  rising  tomb  a  lofty  column  bore.  [Amhiguwis: — 
which  bore  tJie  other  ?]  13.  He  advanced  against  the  old  man,  imitating 
his  address,  his  pace,  and  career,  as  well  as  the  vigor  of  his  horse  and 
his  own  skill  would  allow.  14.  Their  rebuke  had  the  effect  intended. 
[Equivocal: — did  they  give  tJie  rebuke,  or  receive  it  ?]  15.  Whom  chance 
misled  his  mother  to  destroy,  [Ambiguous : — was  the  mother  the  destroy- 
er or  the  destroyed?]  16.  This  work  has  been  overlooked  [equivocal]  by 
the  most  eminent  critics,  17.  You  ought  to  contemn  all  the  wit  in  the 
world  against  you.  18.  The  clerk  told  his  employer,  whatever  he  did, 
he  could  not  please  him.  19.  Claudius  was  canonized  among  the  gods, 
who  scarcely  deserved  the  name  of  a  man,  20,  The  Latin  tongue,  in 
its  purity,  was  never  in  England,  21.  The  lady  was  sewing  with  a  lio- 
man  nose,  22,  Here  I  saw  two  men  digging  a  well  with  straw  hats. 
23,  We  may  have  more,  but  we  can  not  have  more  satisfactory,  evi- 
dence. 24.  Dr.  Pridcaux  used  to  relate  that,  when  he  brought  the  copy 
of  his  "  Connection  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  "  to  the  bookseller, 
he  told  him  it  was  a  dry  subject,  and  the  printing  could  not  be  safely 
ventured  upon  unless  he  could  enliven  the  work  with  a  little  humor. 
25.  The  sharks  who  prey  upon  the  inadvertency  of  young  heirs  are  more 
pardcmable  than  those  who  trespass  upon  the  good  opinion  of  those  who 
treat  them  with  respect.  26.  Dryden  makes  a  hand.some  observation  on 
Ovid's  writing  a  letter  from  Dido  to  yEneas,  in  the  following  words, 
[Ambiguous  : — were  the  words  here  referred  to  those  of  Dryden'' s  observa- 
tion or  those  of  Dido's  letter  ?]  27,  Most  of  the  hands  were  asleep  in 
their  berths,  when  the  vessel  shipped  a  sea  that  carried  away  our  pin- 
nace and  binnacle.  Our  dead-lights  were  in,  or  we  should  have  filled. 
The  mainmast  was  so  sprung,  that  we  were  obliged  to  fish  it,  and  bear 
away  for  tlie  nearest  port,  28.  This  occurs  in  Ben  Jonson's  works,  a 
prominent  dramatist  contemporary  with  Sliakspeare,  29.  D's  fortune  is 
equal  to  half  of  E's  fortune,  which  is  a  tliousand  dollars.  [Ambiquou.^ : 
-—does  Es  fortune,  or  a  half  of  it,  amovut  to  a  thousand  dollars?]  So, 
My  Christian  and  surname  begin  and  end  with  the  same  letters.  [Am- 
biguous : — does  the  Christian  name  begin  wiih  the  same  iHter  thai  thf  sur- 
name begins  mth,  arid  end  with  the  same  letter  tJuii  the  surname  ends  with  ; 
M,  in  Andrew  Askew  ?  or  does  tJic  Christian  name  aid  icith  the  same  letter 


STEfiNGtii.  293 

vyith  which  it  begins^  and  the  surname  also  end  with  the  same  letter  with  which 
it  begins  ;  as,  in  Hezekiah  TJirift  ?  or,  lastly,  are  all  these  four  letters,  the 
first  and  the  last  of  each  name,  the  same  ;  as,  in  Norman  Nelson  ?.'\  31. 
The  good  man  not  only  deserves  the  respect  but  the  love  of  his  fellow- 
beings.  32.  Charlemagne  patronized  not  only  learned  men,  but  also 
established  several  educational  institutions.  33.  Sixtus  the  Fourth  was, 
if  I  mistake  not,  a  great  collector  of  books,  at  least. 


LESSON   LXI. 

STEENGTH. 

§  368.  The  fifth  essential  property  of  a  good  style  is 
Steength  ;  which  consists  in  such  a  use  and  arrangement 
of  words  as  make  a  deep  impression  on  the  mind  of  the 
reader  or  hearer. 

§  369.  The  first  requisite  of  Strength  is  the  rejection  of  all 
superfluous  words,  which  constitutes,  as  we  have  seen,  one  of 
the  elements  of  Precision  also.  Whatever  adds  nothing  to  the 
meaning  of  a  sentence  takes  from  its  Strength ;  and,  whether 
it  be  simply  a  word,  a  clause,  or  a  member,  should  be  rejected. 
In  the  following  passages,  the  words  in  italics  convey  no  ad- 
ditional meaning,  and,  consequently,  a  regard  for  Strength  re- 
quires their  omission : — "  Being  satisfied  with  what  he  has 
achieved,  he  attempts  nothing  further." — "  If  I  had  not  been 
absent  J  if  I  had  been  here,  this  would  not  have  happened." — 
"  The  very  first  discovery  of  it  strikes  the  mind  with  inward 
joy,  and  spreads  delight  through  all  its  faculties.'''' 

§  370.  The  second  principle  to  be  observed  by  those  who 
aim  at  Strength  of  style,  has  reference  to  the  use  of  relatives. 


%  368.  What  is  the  fifth  esgential  property  of  style  ?    In  what  does  it  consist  ? 
S  369.  What  is  the  first  requisite  of  strength?    What  is  the  efiect  of  words 
which  add  nothing  to  the  meaning  of  a  sentence  ?    Give  examples. 

%  370.  To  what  does  the  second  principle  refer  ?    By  what  are  parts  of  sen- 


294  STRENGTH. 

conjunctions,  and  prepositions,  which,  indicating  the  connec 
tion  and  relation  of  words,  are  constantly  occurring. 

I.  Parts  of  sentences  are  connected  by  either  a  conjunction  or  a  rela- 
tive pronoun,  not  hy  both.  In  the  following  sentence,  the  connection  is 
made  by  and^  and  who  should  therefore  be  rejected :  "  He  was  a  man  of 
fine  abilities,  and  wlio  lost  no  opportunity  of  improving  them  by  study." 
Between  two  relative  clauses,  however,  a  conjunction  is  generally  em- 
ployed ;  as,  "  Cicero,  whom  the  profligate  feared,  but  who  was  honored 
by  the  upright,"  &c.  The  conjunction  is  also  introduced,  even  when  the 
relative  and  its  verb  are  suppressed  in  one  of  the  clauses,  as  in  the  com- 
mencement of  the  sentence  from  Swift,  given  below.  Care  must  be 
taken  not  to  use  the  relative  for  the  conjunction,  or  the  conjunction  for 
the  relative ;  of  which  latter  fault,  Swift  is  guilty  in  the  following  sen- 
tence : — 

"  There  is  no  talent  so  useful  towards  rising  in  the  world,  or  which 
puts  men  more  out  of  the  reach  of  fortune,  than  that  quality  generally 
possessed  by  the  dullest  sort  of  people,  and  is,  in  common  language, 
called  discretion." 

Here  and  should  be  which.  It  will  be  observed,  also,  that  the  words 
which  is  are  understood  after  talent,  near  the  commencement  of  the  sen- 
tence, and  that  the  conjunction  or  is  therefore  introduced  to  connect  the 
first  clause  with  that  which  follows. 

II.  The  too  frequent  use  of  a7id  must  be  avoided.  Not  only  when 
employed  to  introduce  a  sentence,  but  also  when  often  repeated  during 
its  progress,  this  conjunction  greatly  enfeebles  style.  Such  is  its  effect 
in  the  following  sentence  from  Sir  William  Temple,  in  which  it  is  used 
no  less  than  eight  times : — 

"  The  Academy  set  up  by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  to  amuse  the  wits  of 
that  age  and  country,  and  divert  them  from  raking  into  his  poUtics  and 
ministry,  brought  this  into  vogue ;  and  the  French  wits  have,  for  this 
last  age,  been  wholly  turned  to  the  refinement  of  their  style  and  lan- 
guage ;  and,  indeed,  with  such  success  that  it  can  hardly  be  equalled, 
and  runs  equally  through  their  verse  and  their  prose." 

When  the  object  is  to  present  a  quick  succession  of  spirited  images, 
the  conjunction  is  often  entirely  omitted  with  fine  effect,  by  a  figure 
called  by  grammarians  Asyndeton.  This  is  illustrated  in  Caisar's  cele- 
brated veniy  vidi,  vici,  and  constitutes  the  chief  feature  of  the  style  of 
Sallust. 

tcnces  connected  ?  Shotild  both  the  relative  and  the  conjunction  be  need  for  this 
purpose  in  the  same  connection  ?  In  what  case  is  the  relative  alone  insufficient 
to  make  the  connection  ?  What  is  the  fault  in  the  eentenco  quoted  from  Swift  ? 
What  conjunction  mnst  not  be  repeated  too  often  ?  From  whom  is  a  sentence 
quoted,  wiiich  is  faulty  in  this  respect  ?    What  is  meant  by  asyndeton  ?    When  is 


STEENGTH.  295 

On  the  other  hand,  when  we  are  making  an  enumeration  in  which  it 
is  important  that  the  transition  from  one  object  to  another  should  not  be 
too  rapid,  but  that  each  should  appear  distinct  from  the  rest  and  by 
itself  occupy  the  mind  for  a  moment,  the  conjunction  may  be  repeated 
with  peculiar  advantage.  Such  repetition  is  called  Polysyndeton ;  it  is 
exemplified  in  the  following  sentence  of  St.  Paul's : — 

"  I  am  persuaded  that  neither  death,  nor  life,  nor  angels,  nor  prin- 
cipalities, nor  powers,  nor  things  present,  nor  things  to  come,  nor  height, 
nor  depth,  nor  any  other  creature,  shall  be  able  to  separate  us  from  the 
love  of  God." 

III.  What  is  called  the  splitting  of  particles, — that  is,  the  separation 
of  a  preposition  from  the  noun  which  it  governs, — is  always  to  be 
avoided.  This  fault  occurs  in  the  following  sentence :  "  Though  virtue 
borrows  no  assistance  from,  yet  it  may  often  be  accompanied  by,  the 
advantages  of  foxtune."  No  one  can  read  these  lines  without  perceiving 
their  decided  lack  of  Strength  and  Harmony.  A  slight  change  will 
greatly  improve  their  effect:  "Though  virtue  borrows  no  assistance 
from  the  advantages  of  fortune,  yet  it  may  often  be  accompanied  by 
them."  _ 

ly.  Avoid,  on  ordinary  occasions,  the  common  expletive  there^  as 
used  in  the  following  sentence : — "  There  is  nothing  which  disgusts  us 
sooner  than  the  empty  pomp  of  language."  The  sentiment  is  expressed 
more  simply  and  strongly  thus:  "Nothing  disgusts  us  sooner,"  &c. 
This  expletive  form  is  proper  only  when  used  to  introduce  an  important 
proposition. 

§  371.  A  third  means  of  promoting  the  Strength  of  a  sen- 
tence is  to  dispose  of  the  important  word  or  words  in  that 
place  where  they  will  make  the  greatest  impression.  What 
this  place  is,  depends  on  the  natm'e  and  length  of  the  sen- 
tence. Sometimes,  it  is  at  the  commencement,  as  in  the  fol- 
lowing from  Addison :  "  The  pleasures  of  the  imagination^ 
taken  in  their  full  extent,  are  not  so  gross  as  those  of  sense, 
nor  so  refined  as  those  of  the  imderstanding."     In  other 

this  figure  used  with  fine  efifect  ?  In  what  sentence  of  Caesar's  is  it  illustrated  ? 
In  whose  writings  does' it  constantly  recur  ?  What  is  polysyndeton  f  When  may 
it  be  used  with  advantage  ?  Repeat  a  sentence  from  Scripture,  in  which  it  oc- 
curs. What  is  meant  by  the  splitting  of  particles  ?  What  effect  has  it  on  style  ? 
Repeat  a  sentence  in  which  this  fault  occurs,  and  show  how  to  correct  it.  In 
what  cases  is  the  expletive  form  there  is  proper,  and  M'here  should  it  be  avoided  ? 
§  371.  As  a  third  means  of  promoting. strength,  where  should  the  important 
word  or  words  be  placed  ?   In  what  position  will  they  make  the  greatest  impres- 


296  STRENGTH. 

cases,  it  will  be  found  of  advantage  to  suspend  the  sense  for 
a  time,  and  bring  the  important  terra  at  the  close  of  the  pe- 
riod. "On  whatever  side,"  says  Pope,  "we  contemplate 
Homer,  what  principally  strikes  us  is  his  wonderful  inven- 
Hon."  No  rule  can  be  given  on  this  subject ;  a  comparison 
of  different  arrangements  is  the  only  means  of  ascertaining, 
in  any  particular  case,  which  is  the  best.  It  will,  therefore, 
be  well  for  a  writer,  when  a  sentence  which  he  has  com- 
posed seems  weak,  to  try  whether  he  can  not  improve  it  by 
varying  the  position  of  the  important  words. 

But,  whatever  position  the  emphatic  word  or  words  may  occupy,  it 
is  of  primary  importance  that  they  be  disencumbered  of  less  significant 
terms ;  which,  if  presented  in  too  close  connection,  divert  the  mind  from 
the  prominent  idea  or  object  on  which  it  should  be  allowed  to  dwell. 
The  difference  of  effect  will  be  evident  on  comparing  one  of  Shaftesbury's 
sentences,  in  which  a  variety  of  adverbs  and  abverbial  phrases  arc  skil- 
fully introduced,  and  a  sentence  composed  of  the  same  words,  less  forci- 
bly, though  not  ungrammatically,  arranged. 

As  written. — "If,  whilst  they  [poets]  profess  only  to  please,  they 
secretly  advise  and  give  instruction,  they  may  now,  perhaps,  as  well  as 
formerly,  be  esteemed,  with  justice,  the  best  and  most  honorable  among 
authors." 

-4s  altered. — If,  whilst  they  profess  to  please  only,  they  advise  and 
give  instruction  secretly,  they  may  be  esteemed  the  best  and  most 
honorable  among  authors,  with  justice,  perhaps,  now  as  well  as  for- 
merly. 

§  372.  Fourthly,  Strength  requires  that,  when  the  mem- 
bers of  a  sentence  diifer  in  length,  the  shorter  should  have 
precedence  of  the  longer ;  and,  when  they  are  of  unequal 
force,  that  the  weaker  be  placed  before  the  stronger.  Both 
of  these  principles  are  violated  in  the  following  sentence ; 
"In  this  state  of  mmd,  every  employment  of  life  becomes 


»iion  ?  Where  do  they  stand  in  the  sentence  quoted  from  Addison  ?  Whore,  in 
that  talien  from  Pope  ?  What  course  is  siigj^ef  ted  to  the  writer,  when  he  finds 
tliat  lie  lias  composed  a  feeble  sentence?  Wherever  the  emphatic  words  are 
placed,  what  is  of  primary  importance  ?  From  whom  is  a  sentence  quoted  in  il- 
lustration y 

§  37r2.  What  does  strength  require,  ns  regards  the  position  of  members  that 
differ  lu  length  or  force  ?  Repeat  a  sentence  In  which  these  principles  are  vio- 
lated, and  show  how  it  may  be  corrected.    What  figure  conslBta  in  an  arrange- 


STRENGTH.  297 

an  oppressive  burden,  and  every  object  appears  gloomy." 
How  much  more  forcible  does  it  become  when  the  shoi-ter 
and  weaker  member  is  placed  first :  "  In  this  state  of  mind, 
every  object  appears  gloomy,  and  every  employment  of  life 
becomes  an  oppressive  burden." 

This  arrangement  of  the  members  of  a  sentence  constitutes  what  has 
ah'cady  been  defined  among  the  rhetorical  figures  as  Climax.  What  is 
most  emphatic  is  brought  last,  in  order  that  a  strong  impression  may  bo 
left  on  the  reader's  mind.     From  this  rule  the  next  naturally  follows. 

§  373.  Avoid  closing  a  sentence  with  an  adverb,  a  prepo- 
sition, or  any  small  unaccented  word.  Besides  the  violation 
of  Harmony  involved  in  placing  a  monosyllable  where  we 
are  accustomed  to  find  a  swelling  sound,  there  is  a  peculiar 
feebleness  arising  from  the  fact  that  the  mind  naturally 
pauses  to  consider  the  import  of  the  word  last  presented, 
and  is  disappointed  when,  as  in  the  case  of  a  preposition,  it 
has  no  significance  of  its  own,  but  merely  indicates  the  rela- 
tion between  words  that  have  preceded  it.  "He  is  one 
whom  good  men  are  glad  to  be  acquainted  with."  It  will  be 
readily  seen  how  much  is  gained  by  a  simple  transposition : 
"  He  is  one  with  whom  good  men  are  glad  to  be  acquainted." 

The  same  principle  holds  good  in  the  case  of  adverbs.  *'  Such  things 
were  not  allowed  formerly,"  is  feeble  compared  with,  "  Formerly  such 
things  were  not  allowed."  When,  however,  an  adverb  is  emphatic,  it  is 
often,  according  to  §  371,  introduced  at  the  close  of  a  period  with  fine 
effect ;  as  in  the  following  sentence  of  Bolingbroke's :  "  In  their  pros- 
perity, my  friends  shall  never  hear  of  me ;  in  their  adversity,  always." 

This  principle,  also,  requires  us  to  avoid  terminating  a  sentence  with 
a  succession  of  unaccented  words ;  such  as,  with  it,  in  ii,  on  it,  &c. 
"This  is  a  proposition  which  I  did  not  expect;  and  I  must  ask  the 


ment  similar  to  that  here  prescribed  ?    Why  is  it  be*t  to  place  last  that  which  is 
most  emphatic  ? 

§  373.  With  what  must  we  avoid  closing  a  sentence  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  ter- 
minating a  period  in  this  way  ?  Give  an  example  of  this  error,  and  show  how  to 
correct  it  With  what  part  of  speech,  as  a  general  rule,  must  a  sentence  not  be 
closed?  Exemplify,  and  then  correct,  this  error.  In  what  case  may  au  adverb 
close  a  period  ?  Repeat  a  sentence  of  Bolingbroke's,  in  which  one  is  so  placed  with 
fine  effect.  What  else  does  this  principle  require  us  to  avoid?  Give  an  example. 

13* 


298  STRENGTH. 

privilege  of  reflecting  on  it."    The  last  member  would  be  more  forcible 
thus :  "  and  I  must  ask  time  for  reflection." 

§  374.  Lastly,  when  in  diflferent  members  two  objects  arc 
contrasted,  a  resemblance  in  language  and  construction  in- 
creases the  effect.  The  most  striking  comparisons  are  those 
in  which  this  rule  is  observed.  Thus,  Pope,  speaking  of  Ho- 
mer and  Virgil : — ,"  Homer  was  the  greater  genius ;  Virgil 
the  better  artist :  in  the  one,  we  most  admire  the  man ;  iu 
the  other,  the  work.  Homer  hurries  us  with  a  commanding 
impetuosity;  Virgil  leads  us  with  an  attractive  majesty. 
Homer  scatters  with  a  generous  profusion ;  Virgil  bestows 
with  a  careful  magnificence." 

We  may  further  illustrate  this  point  by  placing  side  by  side  two  sen- 
tences embodying  the  same  thought,  in  one  of  which  this  rule  is  observed, 
while  in  the  other  it  is  disregarded. 

Weak. — He  embraced  the  cause  of  liberty  iamtly,  and  pursued  it 
without  resolution ;  he  grew  tired  of  it  when  he  had  much  to  hope,  and 
gave  it  up  when  there  was  no  ground  for  apprehension. 

Strong. — He  embraced  the  cause  of  liberty  faintly,  and  pursued  it 
irresolutely ;  he  grew  tired  of  it  when  he  had  much  to  hope,  and  gave  it 
up  when  he  had  nothing  to  fear. 

EXERCISE. 

In  the  following  sentences,  make  such  corrections  as  are 

required  by  the  rules  for  the  promotion  of  Strength : — 

1.  He  was  a  man  of  fine  reputation,  and  enjoyed  a  high  degree  of 
popularity.  2.  I  went  home,  full  of  a  great  many  serious  reflections.  3. 
This  is  the  principle  which  I  referred  to.  4.  Catiline  was  not  only  an 
infamous  traitor,  but  a  profligate  man.  5.  We  should  constantly  aim  at 
perfection,  though  wo  may  have  no  expectation  of  ever  arriving  at  it.  (». 
It  was  a  case  of  unpardonable  breach  of  trust  and  gross  disregard  of 
official  duty,  to  say  the  least.  V.  We  flatter  ourselves  with  the  belief 
that  we  have  forsaken  our  passions,  when  they  have  forsaken  us.  8. 
Every  one  that  aims  at  greatness  does  not  succeed  (§371).  9.  He  ap- 
pears to  enjoy  the  «»/?'<?r«a^  esteem  of  all  men.  10.  Though  virtue  bor- 
rows  no  assistance  from,  yet  it  may  often  be  accompanied  by,  the  ad- 
vantages of  fortune.  11.  As  the  strength  of  our  cause  does  not  depend 
upon,  so  neither  is  it  to  be  decided  by,  any  critical  points  of  history, 
chronology,  or  language.      12.  Alfred  the  Great,  of  England,  was  one 

§  874.  When  in  difforcnt  members  of  n  ecntence  two  objects  are  contraeted, 
how  is  the  effect  increased  ?  Show  how  Pope  applies  tbis  principle  in  comparing 
Homer  and  Virgil. 


nAEMONY.  299 

of  the  most  remarkable  and  distinguished  men  that  we  read  of  in  history. 
Though  his  efforts  were  unable  and  insufficient  entirely  to  banish  the 
darkness  of  the  age  he  lived  in,  yet  he  greatly  improved  the  condition  of 
his  countrymen,  and  was  the  means  of  doing  much  good  to  them.  18. 
Sensualists,  by  their  gross  excesses  and  frequent  indulgences,  debase 
their  minds,  enfeeble  their  bodies,  and  wear  out  their  spirits  (§  872).  14. 
Ingratitude  is  not  a  crime  that  I  am  chargeable  with,  whatever  other 
faults  I  may  be  guilty  of.  15.  The  man  of  virtue  and  of  honor  will  be 
trusted,  and  esteemed,  and  respected,  and  relied  upon.  16.  He  has 
talents  which  are  rapidly  xmfolding  into  life  and  vigor,  and  indomitable 
energies  (§  372).  lY.  It  is  absurd  to  think  of  judging  either  Ariosto  or 
Spenser  by  precepts  which  they  did  not  attend  to.  18.  Force  was  resist- 
ed by  force,  valor  opposed  by  valor,  and  art  encountered  or  eluded  by 
similar  address  (§  374).  19.  It  is  a  principle  of  our  rehgion  that  we 
should  not  revenge  ourselves  on  our  enemies  or  take  vengeance  on  our 
foes.  20.  It  is  impossible  for  us  to  behold  the  divine  works  with  cold- 
ness or  indifference,  or  to  survey  so  many  beauties  without  a  secret  sat- 
isfaction and  complacency.  21.  The  faith  he  professed,  and  which  he 
became  an  apostle  o/,  was  not  his  invention.  22.  The  creed  originated 
by  Mohammed,  and  which  almost  all  the  Arabians  and  Persians  believe 
in,  is  a  mixture  of  Paganism,  and  Judaism,  and  Christianity.  23.  There 
is  not,  in  my  opinion,  a  more  pleasing  and  triumphant  consideration  in 
religion  than  this,  of  the  perpetual  progress  which  the  soul  makes  towards 
the  perfection  of  its  nature,  without  ever  arriving  at  a  period  in  it.  24.  Their 
idleness,  and  their  luxury  and  pleasures,  their  criminal  deeds,  and  their 
immoderate  passions,  and  their  timidity  and  baseness  of  mind,  have  de- 
jected them  to  such  a  degree,  that  life  itself  is  a  burden,  and  they  find 
no  pleasure  in  it.  25.  Shakspeare  was  a  man  of  profound  genius,  and 
whose  bold  and  striking  thoughts  must  be  admired  in  every  age.  26. 
Avarice  is  a  crime  which  wise  men  are  often  guilty  of. 


LESSON    LXII. 

HAKMONT. 

§  375.  The  sixth  essential  property  of  a  good  style  is 
Harmony  ;  a  term  used  to  denote  that  smooth  and  easy 
flow  which  pleases  the  ear.  Sound,  though  less  important 
than  sense,  must  not  be  disregarded,  as  a  means  of  increas- 
ing the  effect  of  what  is  spoken  or  written.  Pleasing  ideas 
can  hardly  be  transmitted  by  harsh  and  disagreeable  words ; 

%  876.  What  is  the  sixth  essential  property  of  style  ?    What  does  harmony 


600  HARMONY. 

and,  whatever  emotion  wo  are  endeavoring  to  excite  in  the 
reader,  we  accomplish  our  object  much  more  readily  and  ef- 
fectually by  availing  ourselves  of  the  peculiar  sounds  appro- 
priate thereto. 

Harmony  consists  in, 

I.  The  use  of  euphonious,  or  pleasant-sounding,  words. 

II.  The  euphonious  arrangement  of  words. 

III.  The  adaptation  of  sound  to  the  sense  it  expresses. 
§  376.  The  following  words  are  to  be  avoided  as  in- 
harmonious : — 

I.  Derivatives  from  long  compound  words :  such  as,  harefaccdncss^ 
wrongheadedness,  unsicccessfubicss. 

II.  Words  containing  a  succession  of  consonant  sounds  ;  &s,/orni'd8ly 
strik^st^  flinched. 

III.  Words  containing  a  succession  of  unaccented  syllables ;  as,  me- 
teorological^ derogatorily,  mercinariness. 

IV.  Words  in  which  a  short  or  unaccented  syllable  is  repeated,  or 
followed  by  another  that  closely  resembles  it ;  as,  hoWij,farriering. 

It  must  not  be  inferred  that  the  writer  is  required,  in  all  cases,  to  re- 
ject the  words  embraced  under  the  classes  just  enumerated.  Harsh 
terms  are  sometimes  adapted  to  the  subject,  and  express  the  meaning 
more  forcibly  than  any  others.  They  should  be  avoided,  however,  when 
euphony  is  desirable,  and  there  are  other  terms  which  express  the  mean- 
ing with  equal  significance. 

Those  words  are  most  agreeable  to  the  ear,  in  which  there  is  an  in- 
termixture of  consonants  and  vowels,  not  so  many  of  the  former  as  to 
impede  freedom  of  utterance,  or  such  a  recurrence  of  the  latter  as  fre- 
quently to  occasion  hiatus. 

§  377.  A  regard  for  harmony  also  requires  us,  in  the 
progress  of  a  sentence,  to  avoid  repeating  a  sound  by  em- 
ploying the  same  word  more  than  once,  or  using,  in  con- 
tiguous words,  similar  combinations  of  letters.  This  fault  is 
known  as  tautology.     It  may  be  corrected  by  substituting  a 

denote?    How  does  eoand  compare  in  importance  with  sensor    In  what  three 

particulars  does  harmony  consist  ? 

S  376.  Mention  tlie  four  classes  of  words  to  be  avoided  as  inharmonious.  When 
arc  such  words  to  be  rejected  ?  When  may  they  be  employed  ?  What  words  are 
most  agreeable  to  the  ear  ? 

§  8T7.  What  is  tautology?  What  is  its  effect?  How  may  it  be  corrected  ?  Give 
examples. 


nARMONY. 


301 


syiionyme  for  one  of  the  words  in  which  the  repeated  sound 
occurs.  The  unpleasant  effect  of  tautology  will  be  readily 
perceived  in  the  following  sentences ; — "  The  general  or- 
dered the  captam  to  order  the  soldiers  to  observe  good 
order.'''* — "  We  went  in  an  enormous  car."  By  a  substitu- 
tion of  synonymes,  as  above  suggested,  we  avoid  the  un- 
pleasant repetitions  in  these  passages,  and  increase  their 
Strength. — "  The  general  directed  the  captain  to  command 
the  soldiers  to  observe  good  order." — "  We  went  in  a  large 
car." 

§  378.  Harmony,  morever,  is  deficient  in  sentences  con- 
taining a  succession  of  words  of  the  same  number  of  sylla- 
bles ;  thus,  "  No  Idnd  of  joy  can  long  please  us,"  is  less  harmo- 
nious than,  "  No  species  of  joy  can  long  delight  us."  So  we  im- 
prove the  sound  of  the  following  sentence,  in  which  there  is 
a  preponderance  of  dissyllables,  by  varying  the  length  of 
the  words :  "  She  always  displays  a  cheerful  temper  and 
pleasant  humor." — "  She  invariably  exhibits  a  contented  Sindi 
pleasant  disposition^ 

§  379.  The  second  particular  on  which  the  Harmony  of  a 
sentence  depends,  is  the  proper  arrangement  of  its  parts. 
However  well-chosen  the  words  may  be,  or  however  eupho- 
nious in  themselves,  if  they  are  unskilfully  arranged  the 
music  of  the  sentence  is  lost. 

In  the  harmonious  structure  of  periods,  no  writer,  ancient  or  modern, 
equals  Cicero.  It  was  a  feature  which  he  regarded  as  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance to  the  effect  of  a  composition,  and  to  insure  the  perfection  of 
which  he  spared  no  labor.  Indeed,  his  countrymen  generally  were  more 
thorough  in  their  investigation  of  this  subject,  and  more  careful  in  their 
observance  of  the  rules  pertaining  thereto,  than  are  the  most  polished 
of  modern  writers.  Not  only  was  their  language  susceptible  of  more 
melodious  combinations  than  ours,  but  their  ears  were  more  delicately 
attuned,  and  were  thus  the  means  of  affording  them  livelier  pleasure 
from  a  well-rounded  period.     "  I  have  often,"  says  Cicero,  "  been  witness 

§  378.  In  what  sentences  is  harmony  deficient  ?    Give  examples. 

S  379.  What  is  the  second  particular  on  which  the  harmony  of  a  sentence  de- 
pends? Who  surpasses  all  writers  in  the  harmonious  stracture  of  his  periods? 
How,  as  regards  this  property,  do  the  ancient  Romans  compare  with  the  modems  f 


302  UArRMONY. 

to  bursts  of  acclamation  in  the  public  assemblies  when  sentences  closed 
musically ;  for  that  is  a  pleasure  which  the  ear  expects."  Elsewhere, 
alluding  to  a  sentence  of  the  eloquent  Carbo,  he  tells  us, "  So  great  a 
clamor  was  excited  on  the  part  of  the  assembly  that  it  was  altogether 
wonderful."  At  the  present  day,  we  can  not,  even  with  the  most  har- 
monious style,  hope  to  produce  such  effects.  It  is  sufficient  if  the  ear 
is  pleased ;  it  need  not  be  transported.  There  is  danger,  moreover,  if  a 
swelling  tone  is  continued  too  long,  of  giving  to  what  is  composed  an 
air  of  tumid  declamation.  The  ear  of  a  reader,  becoming  familiar  with  a 
monotonous  melody,  is  apt  to  be  cloyed  with  it,  and  to  convey  to  the 
mind  but  a  slight  impression  compared  with  that  produced  by  variety. 
Contiguous  sentences  must  be  constructed  differently,  so  that  their 
pauses  may  fall  at  unequal  intervals.  Even  discords  properly  intro- 
duced,  and  abrupt  departures  from  regularity  of  cadence,  have,  at  times, 
a  good  effect.  Above  all,  there  must  be  no  appearance  of  labored  at- 
tempts at  Harmony ;  no  sacrifice  of  Perspicuity,  Precision,  or  Strength, 
to  sound.  All  unmeaning  words  introduced  merely  to  round  a  period 
must  be  regarded  as  blemishes.  When  the  meaning  of  a  sentence  is  ex- 
pressed with  clearness,  force,  and  dignity,  it  can  hardly  fail  to  strike  the 
ear  agreeably ;  at  most,  a  moderate  degree  of  attention  will  be  all  that 
is  required  for  imparting  to  such  a  period  a  pleasing  cadence.  Labored 
attempts  will  often  result  in  nothing  more  than  rendering  the  composi- 
tion languid  and  enervated. 

§  380.  The  first  thing  requiring  attention  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  sentences,  is  that  the  parts  be  disposed  in  such  a 
way  as  to  be  easily  read.  What  the  organs  of  speech  find 
no  difficulty  in  uttering,  will,  as  a  general  rule,  afford  pleas- 
ure to  the  ear.  In  the  progress  of  a  sentence,  the  voice 
naturally  rests  at  the  close  of  each  member;  and  these 
pauses  should  be  so  distributed  as  neither  to  exhaust  the 
breath  by  their  distance  from  each  other,  nor  to  require  con- 
stant cessations  of  voice  by  the  frequency  of  their  recur- 
rence.    Below  are  presented  in  contrast  a  harmonious  sen- 

Whftt  does  Cicero  say  that  ho  has  witnessed  ?  What  docs  he  state  with  respect  to 
a  Bentence  of  Carbo's  ?  Why  should  we  not,  at  the  present  day,  aim  at  a  elmilar  de- 
gree of  harmony  ?  What  la  recommeuded  with  respect  to  the  conBtruction  of  con- 
tiguous sentences  ?  What  is  sometimes  the  effect  of  discords  ?  What  periods  will 
generally  strike  the  ear  agreeably  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  labored  attempts  at  har- 
mony? 

§  880.  What  first  requires  attention  in  the  arrangement  of  sentences  1    Where 
does  the  voice,  in  reading,  nataraUy  rest  ?    How  should  these  pauses  be  distrib' 


HAHMONY.  303 

tence  from  Milton,  and  one  of  an  opposite  character  from 
Tillotson ;  the  former  of  wliich  pleases  the  ear  with  its  well- 
arranged  succession  of  pauses ;  while  the  latter  offends  this 
organ  by  reason  of  the  length  of  its  members,  particularly 
the  closing  one,  in  which  the  reader  finds  no  opportunity  for 
taking  breath : — 

"  From  Milton. — "  We  shall  conduct  you  to  a  hill-side,  laborious,  in- 
deed, at  the  first  ascent ;  but  else,  so  smooth,  so  green,  so  full  of  goodly 
prospects,  and  melodious  sounds  on  every  side,  that  the  harp  of  Orpheus 
was  not  more  charming." 

From  Tillotson. — "  This  discourse  concerning  the  easiness  of  God's 
commands,  does,  all  along,  suppose  and  acknowledge  the  diflSculties  of 
the  first  entrance  upon  a  reUgious  course ;  except  only  in  those  persons 
who  have  had  the  happiness  to  be  trained  up  to  religion  by  the  easy  and 
insensible  degrees  of  a  pious  and  virtuous  education." 

On  this  same  account,  a  want  of  skill  in  the  distribution  of  pauses, 
the  example  given  "«s  altered''''  in  §  3'7l  is  singularly  inharmonious;  as, 
also,  are  many  sentences  in  which  there  are  long  parentheses. 

§  381.  The  next  thing  to  be  considered  is  the  cadence  of 
periods.  The  rule  bearing  on  this  point  is,  that  when  we 
aim  at  dignity  or  elevation  the  sound  should  be  made  to 
swell  to  the  last.  Herein  the  requirements  of  Strength  and 
Harmony  agree, — that  the  longest  members  and  the  fullest 
and  most  sonorous  words  be  retained  for  the  conclusion.  To 
end  a  sentence,  therefore,  with  a  preposition,  or  a  succession 
of  unaccented  words,  is  as  disagreeable  to  the  ear  as  it  is 
enfeebling.  Observe  the  admirable  cadence  of  the  follow- 
ing fine  sentence  of  Sterne's : — 

"  The  accusing  spirit  which  flew  up  to  Heaven's  Chancery  with  the 
oath,  blushed  as  he  gave  it  in ;  and  the  recording  angel,  as  he  wrote  it 
down,  dropped  a  tear  upon  the  word,  and  blotted  it  out  forever." 

A  slight  change  at  the  close  of  the  sentence  will  mar  its  melody. 

"  The  accusing  spirit  which  flew  up  to  Heaven's  Chancery  with  the 
oath,  blushed  as  he  gave  it  in ;  and  the  recording  angel,  as  he  wrote  it 
down,  dropped  a  tear,  and  blotted  it  out." 

uted  ?  From  what  authors  are  examples  quoted,  and  wherein  lies  the  harmony 
of  the  one,  and  the  harshness  of  the  other  ?  What  is  said  of  sentences  contain- 
ing long  parentheses  ? 

§  381.  What  is  the  rule  for  giving  an  effective  cadence  to  a  sentence  ?  With 
what  do  both  strength  and  harmony  require  us  to  avoid  closing  a  period  ?  Re- 
peat a  musical  sentence  from  Sterne,  point  out  wherein  its  harmony  consists,  and 
show  how  a  slight  change  will  destroy  its  cadence. 


304:  HAilMONY. 

§  382.  Finally,  as  the  highest  kind  of  Harmony, — most 
difficult  to  attain,  and,  when  attained,  most  effective, — we 
have  to  consider  the  adaptation  of  sound  to  sense.  This  is 
twofold :  first,  the  natural  adaptation  of  particular  sounds 
to  certain  kinds  of  writing ;  and,  secondly,  the  use  of  such 
words  in  the  description  of  sound,  motion,  or  passion,  as, 
either  in  reality  or  by  reason  of  imaginary  associations,  bear 
some  resemblance  to  the  object  described. 

§  383.  Certain  currents  of  sound,  it  has  been  said,  are 
adapted  to  the  tenor  of  certain  varieties  of  composition. 
Sounds  have,  hi  many  respects,  a  correspondence  "VN-ith  our 
ideas,  partly  natural,  and  partly  the  effect  of  artificial  asso- 
ciations. Hence,  any  one  modulation  continued  impresses  a 
certain  character  on  style.  Sentences  constructed  with  the 
Ciceronian  swell  are  appropriate  to  what  is  gi*ave,  impor- 
tant, or  magnificent ;  for  this  is  the  tone  which  such  senti- 
ments naturally  assume :  but  they  suit  no  violent  passion, 
no  eager  reasoning,  no  familiar  address.  These  require 
sentences  brisker,  easier,  and  more  abrupt.  No  one  current 
of  sounds,  therefore,  will  be  found  appropriate  to  different 
compositions,  or  even  to  different  parts  of  the  same  produc- 
tion. To  use  the  same  cadence  in  an  oration  and  letter 
would  be  as  absurd  as  to  set 'the  words  of  a  tender  love- 
song  to  the  air  of  a  stately  march.  There  is  thus  much 
room  for  taste  and  judgment  in  forming  such  combinations 
of  words  as  are  suited  to  the  subject  under  consideration. 

§  384.  Not  only  is  a  general  correspondence  of  the  cur- 
rent of  sound  with  that  of  thought  to  be  maintained  in  com- 
position, but,  in  particular  cases,  the  words,  either  by  their 
length,  their  rapidity  of  movement,  or  some  other  peculiarity, 


§  382.  What  is  the  highest  kind  of  harmony  ?  Under  what  two  heads  do  w« 
conBider  the  adaptation  of  sound  to  wensc  ? 

S  383.  To  what  are  certain  currents  of  sound  adapted  ?  Explain  the  reason. 
What  is  the  result  of  continuinjj  any  one  mod«ilatlon  ?  To  what  arc  sentences 
constructed  with  the  Ciceronian  swell  appropriate  ?  To  what  arc  they  unsuited  f 
In  what,  then,  is  there  much  room  for  taste  and  judgment  ? 

i  384.  How  may  words  be  made  to  resemble  the  &cni>c  ?  In  what  department  of 


HAKMONY.  305 

may  be  made  to  resemble  the  sense  with  the  happiest  effect. 
This  can  sometimes  be  accomplished  in  prose,  but  is  to  be 
looked  for  chiefly  in  poetry,  where  inversions  and  other 
licenses  give  us  a  greater  command  of  sound. 

The  sounds  of  words  are  employed  for  representing,  chiefly, 
three  classes  of  objects  :  first,  other  sounds ;  secondly,  differ- 
ent kinds  of  motion ;  thirdly,  the  passions  of  the  mind. 

The  simplest  variety  of  this  kind  of  Harmony  is  the 
imitation,  by  a  proper  choice  of  words,  of  striking  sounds 
which  we  wish  to  describe ;  such  as  the  noise  of  waters,  or 
the  roaring  of  winds. 

This  imitation  is  not  difficult.  No  great  degree  of  art  is  required  in 
a  poet,  when  he  is  describing  sweet  and  soft  sounds,  to  use  words  that 
are  composed  principally  of  liquids  and  vowels,  and  therefore  glide  easily 
along;  or,  when  he  is  speaking  of  harsh  noises,  to  throw  together  a 
number  of  rough  syllables  of  difficult  pronunciation.  This  is,  in  fact, 
no  more  than  a  continued  onomatopoeia,  a  rhetorical  figure  already  de- 
fined ;  it  is  simply  carrying  out  a  principle  which  has  operated  in  the 
formation  of  many  words  in  our  language.  In  common  conversation  we 
speak  of  the  whistling  of  winds,  the  shriek  of  the  eagle,  the  whoop  of  the 
Indian,  the  buzz  of  insects,  and  the  hiss  of  serpents.  These  sounds  we 
express  respectively  by  articulate  sounds  which  resemble  them ;  and  this 
is  just  what  the  poet  seeks  to  do,  only  at  greater  length,  and  by  combi- 
nations instead  of  individual  words. 

The  first  two  examples  are  passages  from  Paradise  Lost,  representing 
respectively  the  sounds  made  by  the  unclosing  of  the  gates  of  Hell,  and 
the  opening  of  the  portals  of  Heaven.  Observe  how  admirably  these 
sentences  are  adapted,  each  to  its  subject ;  how  harsh  the  one,  how  har- 
monious the  other : — 

"  On  a  sudden,  open  fly, 

With  impetuous  recoil  and  jarring  sound, 

The  infernal  doors ;  and  on  their  hinges  grate 

Harsh  thundei-." 

"Heaven  opened  wide 

Her  ever-during  gates,  harmonious  sound, 

On  golden  hinges  turning." 

composition,  chiefly,  is  this  beauty  to  be  looked  for,  and  why  ?  What  thre« 
classes  of  objects  are  oftenest  thus  represented  by  sounds  ?  What  is  the  simplest 
variety  of  this  kind  of  harmony  ?  How  may  sweet  and  soft  sounds  be  reprei?ent- 
ed  ?  How,  harsh  noises  ?  What  figure  is  thus  carried  out  ?  Give  examples  of 
words  formed  in  imitation  of  the  sounds  which  they  denote.  What  do  the  first 
two  examples  represent?    How  do  they  compare  with  each  other?    What  poet, 


306  IIAKMONY. 

None  knew  better  than  Pope  the  effect  of  this  higher  kmd  of  Har- 
mony. He  thus,  m  the  Odyssey  (xxi.,  449),  represents  the  sound  of  a 
bow-string : — 

"  The  string,  let  fly, 
Twanged  short  and  sharp,  like  the  ehrlll  swallow's  cry." 

So,  in  his  Iliad  (xxiii.,  146),  he  imitates  the  noise  of  axes  and  falling 
oaks : — 

*'  Loud  sounds  the  axe,  redoubling  strokes  on  strokes, 
On  all  sides  round  the  forest  hurls  her  oaks 
Headlong.    Deep  echoing  groan  the  thickets  brown, 
Then,  rustling,  crackling,  crasIUng,  thunder  downy 

The  roaring  of  a  whirlpool  he  describes  in  the  following  terms : — 

"  Dire  Scylla  there  a  scene  of  horror  forms, 
And  here  Charybdis  fills  the  deep  with  storms ; 
When  the  tide  rushes  from  her  rumbling  caves, 
Tlie  rough  rock  roars ;  tumultuous  boil  the  waves." 

In  allusion  to  the  very  subject  before  us, — i.  e.  making  the  sound,  in 
poetry,  resemble  the  sense, — the  same  author  gives  a  precept,  and  strik- 
ingly illustrates  it,  in  a  single  line : — 

"  But,  when  loud  surges  lash  the  sounding  shore. 
The  /loarse  rough  verse  should  like  the  torrent  roar^ 

In  the  second  place,  the  sound  of  words  is  often  em- 
ployed to  imitate  motion,  whether  swift  or  slow,  violent  or 
gentle,  equable  or  interrupted.  Though  there  is  no  natural 
affinity  between  sound  and  motion,  yet  in  the  imagination 
they  are  closely  connected,  as  appears  from  the  relation  sub- 
sisting between  music  and  dancing. 

Long  syllables  naturally  give  the  impression  of  slow  and  difficult 
motion,  as  in  these  lines  of  Pope : — 

"  A  needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song ; 

That,  like  a  wounded  snake,  drags  its  slow  length  along^ 
"  Just  writes  to  make  his  barrenness  appear. 

And  strains  from  hard-bound  brains  eight  lines  a  year^ 

A  succession  of  short  syllables  containing  but  few  consonants  de- 
notes rapid  motion,  as  in  the  last  of  the  following  lines  from  Cowley, 

In  particular,  has  attained  this  higher  kind  of  harmony  ?  Repeat  the  lines  in 
which  ho  represents  the  sound  of  a  bow-string ;  tliose  in  which  he  Imitates  tho 
noise  of  axes  and  falling  oaks ;  those  in  which  he  describes  tho  roaring  of  a 
whirlpool ;  those  in  which  he  alhidcs  to  tlic  subject  under  cousidcmtion. 

What  is  the  second  variety  of  this  kind  of  harmony  ?  What  is  said  of  the  con- 
nection between  sound  and  motion  ?  How  is  the  impression  of  slow  and  diffi- 
cult motion  conveyed?    Illustrate  this  from  Pope.    How  is  rapid  motion  de* 


HAEMONY.  307 

TThich  Johnson  says,  as  an  example  of  representative  versification,  "  per- 
haps no  other  English  line  can  equal ". 

"  He  who  defers  this  work  from  day  to  day, 
Does  on  a  river's  bank  expecting  stay, 
Till  the  whole  stream  that  stopped  him  shall  be  gone,— 
Which  runs,  and,  as  it  rum,  forever  shall  run  on.'''' 

Pope  furnishes  an  example  of  easy  metrical  flow,  which  admirably 
represents  the  gentle  motion  of  which  he  speaks : — 

"  Soft  is  the  strain  when  Zephyr  gently  blows, 
And  the  snwoth  stream  in  smoother  numbers  flows.'''' 

A.  sudden  calm  at  sea  is  well  painted  in  the  following  lines : — 

"  Then  the  shrouds  drop ; 
The  downy  feather,  on  the  cordage  hung. 
Moves  not :  the  flat  sea  shines  like  yellow  gold 
Fused  in  the  fire,  or  like  the  marble  floor 
Of  some  old  temple  wide." 

Sounds  are  also  capable  of  representing  the  emotions 
and  passions  of  the  mind :  not  that  there  is,  logically  speak- 
ing, any  resemblance  between  the  two ;  but  inasmuch  as  dif- 
ferent syllabic  combinations  awaken  certain  ideas,  and  may 
thus  predispose  the  reader's  mind  to  sympathy  with  that 
emotion  on  which  the  poet  intends  to  dwell.  Of  this,  Dryden's 
Ode  on  St.  Cecilia's  Day  is  a  striking  exemplification ;  as, 
also,  is  Collins's  Ode  on  "  The  Passions  ".  An  extract  or  two 
from  the  latter  poem  will  sufficiently  illustrate  the  subject ; 
it  will  be  observed  that  the  words,  the  metre,  and  the 
cadence,  admirably  correspond  with  the  emotion  in  each  case 
depicted : — 

"Next  Anger  rushed,  his  eyes  on  Are, 
In  lightnings  owned  his  secret  stings  ; 
In  one  rude  clash  he  struck  the  lyre. 
And  swept  with  hurried  hand  the  strings." 

"  With  woeful  measures  wan  Despair- 
Low  sullen  sounds  his  grief  beguiled ; 
A  solemn,  strange,  and  mingled  air, 
'Twas  sad  by  fits,  by  starts  'twas  wild  I " 

noted  ?  Quote,  in  illustration,  a  line  from  Cowley,  highly  commended  by  John- 
eon.  Quote  a  couplet  of  Pope's,  which  represents  gentle  motion.  Eepeat  the  ex- 
ample in  which  a  sudden  cahn  at  sea  is  described.  What  else  are  sounds  capable 
of  representing?  Explain  how  this  is  possible.  What  poems  afford  examples? 
Repeat  the  passages  quoted  from  Collins's  Ode,  and  show  how  the  sound  corre- 
sponds with  the  emotion  denoted. 


308  EXERCISE   ON    HARMONY. 

"But  thoa,  O  Hope,  with  eyes  eo  fair, 

What  was  thy  delighted  measure? 

Still  it  whispered  promised  pleasure. 
And  bade  the  lovely  scenes  at  distance  hail  I 

Still  would  her  touch  the  strain  prolong, 
And  from  the  rocks,  the  woods,  the  vale. 

She  called  on  Echo  still  through  all  her  Bong ; 
And  where  her  sweetest  theme  she  chose, 

A  soft  responsive  voice  was  heard  at  every  close. 
And  Hope,  enchanted,  emiled,  and  waved  her  golden  hair ! ' 


LESSON    LXIII. 

EXERCISE     ON    HARMONY. 

Correct  .the  following  sentences  according  to  the  rules 

for  the  promotion  of  Harmony : — 

1.  No  mortal  author,  in  the  ordinary  fate  and  vicissitude  of  things, 
knows  to  what  use  his  works,  whatever  they  are,  may,  some  time  or 
other,  be  applied  (§  381).  2.  It  is  likewise  urged  that  there  are,  by 
computation,  in  this  kingdom,  above  ten  thousand  parsons,  whose  reve- 
nues, added  to  those  of  my  Lords  the  Bit<hops,  would  suffice  to  maintain, 
at  their  present  rate  of  living,  half  a  million,  if  not  more,  poor  men,  3. 
Study  to  unite  with  firmness  gentle  pleasing  manners  (§  378).  4.  lie 
was  mortifyingly  rebuked  for  the  mischievousness  of  his  behavior.  5. 
There  are  no  persons,  or,  if  there  are  any,  assuredly  they  are  few  in 
number,  who  have  not,  at  some  time  of  life,  either  directly  or  indirectly, 
with  or  without  consciousness  on  their  part,  been  of  service  to  their  fel- 
low-creatures, or  at  least  a  portion  of  them.  6.  Thou  rushcdst  into  the 
midst  of  the  conflict  and  swervedst  not.  7.  I  have  just  made  arrange- 
ments/or  ybrMJrtr</<»///o</>'  bales  of  goods.  8.  A  mild  child  is  liked  bet- 
ter than  a  wild  child.  9.  St.  Augustine  lived  liolily  and  godlily.  10. 
Notwithstanding  the  barefacedness  of  his  conduct,  we  could  not  help 
pitying  the  miserableness  of  his  condition.  11,  The  slow  horse  that 
keeps  on  his  course  may  beat  the  fast  horse  that  stops  to  eat  or  sleep  by 
the  way  (§  378).  12.  It  is  he  that  has  committed  the  deed,  at  least  ao- 
cessorily.  13.  Sobermindedness  and  shamefacedness  are  by  some  con- 
sidered  evidences  of  virtue.  14.  (renerally  spoakiitg,  a  prudent  general 
will  avoid  a  general  engagement  unless  his  forces  are  equal  in  bravery 
and  discipline  to  those  of  his  opponent.  15.  This  is  distinctly  stated  in 
an  encyclical  letter  of  that  age.  16.  Energy,  industry,  temperance,  and 
handincss,  reconmiend  mechanics.  17.  Hydrophobia  (which  is  derived 
from  two  Greek  words,  meaning /<(Tr  of  water ^  and  is  so  called  from  the 
aversion  to  that  element  which  it  produces  in  human  patients  sutrering 
from  its  attack,  though  it  seldom  causes  a  similar  aversion  in  the  animal 
from  whose  bite  it  originates)  sometimes  does  not  display  itself  for 


UNITY.  309 

months  after  the  poison  has  been  received  into  the  system.  18.  To  two 
tunes  I  have  made  up  my  mind  never  to  listen.  19.  Days,  weeks,  and 
months,  pass  by  ;  the  rocks  shall  waste  and  man  shall  turn  to  dust.  20. 
In  an  mialogous  case,  this  might  be  different.  21.  Should  liberty  con- 
tinue to  be  abused,  as  it  has  been  for  some  time  past,  (and,  though  dem- 
agogues may  not  admit  it,  yet  sensible  and  observing  men  will  not  deny 
that  it  has  been)  the  people  will  seek  relief  in  despotism  or  in  emigra- 
tion. 22.  We  should  carefully  examine  into,  and  candidly  pass  judgment 
on,  our  faults.  23.  In  a  few  years,  the  hand  of  industry  may  change  the 
face  of  a  country,  so  that  one  who  was  familiar  with  it  may  be  unable  to 
recognize  it  as  that  which  he  once  knew ;  but  many  generations  must 
pass  before  any  change  can  be  wrought  in  the  sentiments  or  manners  of 
a  people  cut  off  from  intercourse  with  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  thereby 
confined  to  the  sphere  of  their  own  narrow  experience  (§  380),  24. 
Confident  as  you  are  now  in  your  assertions,  and  positive  as  you  are  in 
your  opinions,  the  time,  be  assured,  approaches,  when  things  and  men 
will  appear  in  a  different  light  to  you.  25.  Some  chroniclers^  by  an  inju- 
dicious use  of  familiar  phrases,  express  themselves  sillily.  26.  The  scene 
is  laid  on  an  inloiA  lake. 


LESSON   LXIV. 

UNITY. 

§  385.  The  last  essential  property  of  a  good  style  is 
Unity  ;  which  consists  in  the  restriction  of  a  sentence  to 
one  leading  proposition,  modified  only  by  such  accessories 
as  are  materially  and  closely  connected  with  it.  The  very 
nature  of  a  sentence  implies  that  it  must  contain  but  one 
proposition.  It  may,  indeed,  consist  of  parts ;  but  these 
must  be  so  bound  together  as  to  convey  to  the  mind  the  im- 
pression of  one  fact,  and  one  alone. 

§  386.  The  first  requirement  of  Unity  is,  that  during  the 
course  of  the  sentence  the  scene  and  the  subject  be  changed 
as  little  as  possible.     The  reader  must  not  be  hurried  by 


§  886.  What  is  the  last  essential  property  of  a  good  style  ?  In  what  does  imity 
consist  ?  What  does  the  nalure  of  a  sentence  imply  ?  If  it  consists  of  parts, 
what  must  be  their  character? 

§  386.  What  is  the  first  requirement  of  unity?  What  is  the  effect  of  sudden 
tnmsitious  in  a  sentence  from  place  to  place  or  from  person  to  person  ?    Illus- 


310  UNITY. 

sudden  transitions  from  place  to  place,  or  from  person  to 
person.  One  leading  subject  at  a  time  is  enough  for  the 
mind  to  contemplate ;  when  more  are  introduced,  the  atten- 
tion is  distracted,  the  Unity  destroyed,  and  the  impression 
weakened.  This,  it  will  be  seen,  is  the  effect  in  the  follow- 
ing sentence,  which  contains  no  less  than  four  subjects, — 
friends,  we,  Z,  who  [that  is,  passengers].  Observe  how  a 
slight  change  in  the  construction  gets  rid  of  two  of  the  sub- 
jects and  thus  insures  the  Unity  of  the  sentence  : — 

"  My  friends  turned  back  after  we  reached  the  vessel,  on  board  of 
which  I  was  received  with  kindness  by  the  passengers,  who  vied  with 
each  other  in  showing  me  attention." 

Corrected. — "  My  friends  having  turned  back  after  we  reached  the 
vessel,  the  passengers  received  me  on  board  with  kindness,  and  vied 
with  each  other  in  showing  me  attention." 

§  387.  A  second  rule  is,  do  not  crowd  into  one  sentence 
things  that  have  no  connection. 

This  rule  is  violated  in  the  following  passage : — "  Archbishop  Tillot- 
son  died  in  this  year.  He  was  exceedingly  beloved  both  by  King  Wil- 
liam and  Queen  Mary,  who  nominated  Dr.  Tennison,  Bishop  of  Lincoln, 
to  succeed  him."  Who,  from  the  beginning  of  this  sentence,  would  ex- 
pect such  a  conclusion  ?  When  we  arc  told  that  he  was  loved  by  the 
king  and  queen,  we  naturally  look  for  some  proof  of  this  affection,  or  at 
least  something  connected  with  the  main  proposition ;  whereas  we  are 
suddenly  informed  of  Dr.  Tennison's  nomination  in  his  place.  To  cor- 
rect such  an  error,  we  must  remove  the  discordant  idea,  and  embody  it, 
if  it  is  essential  that  it  be  presented,  in  a  distinct  sentence : — "  He  was 
exceedingly  beloved  by  King  William  and  Queen  Mary.  Dr.  Tennison, 
Bishop  of  Lincoln,  was  nominated  to  succeed  him." 

The  following  sentence,  from  a  translation  of  Plutarch,  is  still  worse. 
Speaking  of  the  Greeks,  under  Alexander,  the  author  says : — 

"  Their  march  was  through  an  uncultivated  coimtry,  whose  savage 
inhabitants  fared  hardly,  having  no  other  riches  than  a  breed  of  lean 
sheep,  whose  flesh  was  rank  and  unsavory,  by  reason  of  their  continual 
feeding  upon  sea-fish." 

Hero  the  scene  is  changed  again  and  again.    The  march  of  the 

trato  this  with  a  sentence  containing  four  Bubjccts,  and  show  bow  the  toult  may 
be  corrected, 

§  387.  What  is  the  second  mlo  for  the  preservation  of  unity?  Repeat  a  pas- 
sage in  which  it  is  violated.  Show  whorcin  the  error  lies,  and  correct  it.  Give 
the  substance  of  the  passage  quoted  from  a  translation  of  Plutarch.    What  is  oly 


UNITY.  311 

Greeks,  the  description  of  the  inhabitants  through  whose  country  they 
travelled,  the  account  of  their  sheep,  and  the  reason  why  these  animals 
made  unsavory  food,  form  a  medley  which  can  not  fail  to  be  distasteful 
in  the  highest  degree  to  an  intelligent  reader. 

A  violation  of  this  rule  is  fatal  to  Unity  even  in  periods 

of  no  great  length,  as  is  apparent  from  the  examples  just 

given ;  in  sentences  unduly  protracted,  however,  there  is  a 

still  greater  liability  to  err  in  this  particular.     The  involved 

style  of  Clarendon  furnishes  numerous  examples.     Nor  does 

he  stand  alone  ;  many  of  the  old  writers  are,  in  this  respect, 

equally  faulty.     From  Shaftesbury  we  shall  quote  a  sentence 

in  point.     He  is  describing  the  effect  of  the  sun  in  the  frozen 

regions ;  beginning  with  this  orb  as  his  prominent  subject, 

he  soon  proceeds  to  certain  monsters  and  their  exploits ; 

whence,  by  an  unexpected  and  unaccountable  transition,  he 

suddenly  brings  man  into  view,  and  admonishes  him  at  some 

length  as  to  his  religious  duties.     The  only  way  to  correct 

such  an  involved  period  as  this,  is  to  break  it  up  into  several 

smaller  sentences : — 

"  It  breaks  the  icy  fetters  of  the  main,  where  vast  sea-monsters  pierce 
through  floating  islands,  with  arms  which  can  withstand  the  crystal 
rock ;  whilst  others,  who  of  themselves  seem  great  as  islands,  are  by 
their  bulk  alone  armed  against  all  but  man;  whose  superiority  over 
creatures  of  such  stupendous  size  and  force,  should  make  him  mindful 
of  his  privilege  of  reason,  and  force  him  humbly  to  adore  the  great  com- 
poser of  these  wondrous  frames,  and  the  author  of  his  own  superior 
wisdom." 

It  may  be  contended  that,  in  passages  like  the  above,  punctuation 
will  bring  out  the  meaning  by  showing  the  relation  between  the  various 
parts ;  and  that,  therefore,  if  commas,  semicolons,  and  colons,  are  prop- 
erly used,  a  violation  of  Unity  may  be  tolerated.  It  is  true  that  punc- 
tuation does  much  to  remedy  even  faults  as  gross  as  those  in  the  last 
paragraph ;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  points  it  employs  do 
not  make  divisions  of  thought,  but  merely  serve  to  mark  those  already 
existing,  and  are  therefore  proper  only  when  they  correspond  with  the 
latter.     Let  those  who  think  that  a  proper  distribution  of  points  will 

jectionable  in  it?  In  what  Bentences  is  a  want  of  unity  most  likely  to  occur? 
Whose  long  and  intricate  periods  furnish  examples  ?  From  whom  is  a  sentence 
in  point  quoted  ?  Give  its  substance.  What  mistaken  view  do  some  take  with 
respect  to  the  correction  of  sentences  deficient  in  unity,  by  means  of  punctua. 
tion  ?    Show  why  this  view  is  mistaken. 


312  UNITY. 

make  up  for  the  want  of  Unity,  try  the  experiment  in  the  last  example. 
The  ideas  it  contains  are  so  foreign  to  each  other  that  we  must  have  at 
least  three  distinct  sentences  to  express  them  properly  ;  yet  it  is  evident 
that,  as  the  members  now  stand,  periods  between  them  are  inadmissible, 
on  account  of  the  closeness  of  their  connection. 

§  388.  In  the  third  place,  a  regard  for  Unity  requires  that 

we  avoid  long  parentheses.     We  liave  already  alluded  to 

their  effect  as  prejudicial  to  Clearness,  Strength,  and  Har- 

monj^     In  the  old  writers  they  are  of  frequent  occurrence, 

and  constitute  so  palpable  a  fault  that  in  later  times  it  has 

been  thought  the  safest  course  to  reject  parentheses  of  every 

kind.     Passages  in  which  they  occur,  must  be  divided  into 

as  many  sentences  as  there  are  leading  propositions. 

Example. — The  quicksilver  mines  of  Idria,  in  Austria,  (which  were 
discovered  in  1*797,  by  a  peasant,  who,  catching  some  water  from  a 
spring,  found  the  tub  so  heavy  that  he  could  not  move  it,  and  the  bot- 
tom covered  with  a  shining  substance  which  turned  out  to  be  mercury) 
yield,  every  year,  over  three  hundred  thousand  pounds  of  that  valuable 
metal. 

Corrected. — The  quicksilver  mines  of  Idria,  in  Austria,  were  discov- 
ered by  a  peasant  in  1797.  Catching  some  water  from  a  spring,  he  found 
the  tub  so  heavy  that  he  could  not  move  it,  and  the  bottom  covered  with 
a  shining  substance  which  turned  out  to  be  mercury.  Of  this  valuable 
metal,  the  mines  in  question  yield,  every  year,  over  three  hundred  thou- 
gand  pounds. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct  the  following  sentences  so  that  their  Unity  may 

be  preserved,  altering  the  punctuation  as  may  be  required 

by  the  changes  made  : — 

1.  The  usual  acceptation  takes  profit  and  pleasure  for  two  different 
things,  and  not  only  calls  the  followers  or  votaries  of  them  by  the  several 
names  of  busy  and  idle  men,  but  distinguishes  the  faculties  of  the  mind 
that  are  conversant  about  them ;  calling  the  operations  of  the  first,  wis- 
(lorn ;  and  of  the  other,  wit ; — which  is  a  Saxon  word,  used  to  e.\pres!* 
what  the  Spaniards  and  Italians  call  ingenio,  and  the  French,  esprit,  both 
from  the  Latin :  though  I  think  wit  more  particularly  signifies  that  of 
poetry,  as  may  occur  in  remarks  on  the  Runic  language. — Sir  WiLLiAif 
Tkmplk.  2.  To  this  succeeded  that  licentiousness  which  entered  with 
tlic  Restoration,  and  from  infecting  our  religion  and  morals  fell  to  cor- 
rupt our  language ;  which  last  was  not  likely  to  be  much  improved  by 
those  who  at  that  time  made  up  the  court  of  King  Charles  the  Second  ; 
either  such  as  had  followed  him  in  his  banishment,  or  who  had  been  al- 

8  388,  What  is  the  third  rule  ?    What  is  the  effect  of  long  parenthesee  ? 


THE   FOEMING   OF   STYLE.  313 

together  conversant  in  the  dialect  of  these  fanatic  times  ;  or  young  men 
who  had  been  educated  in  the  same  country ;  so  that  the  court,  which 
used  to  be  the  standard  of  correctness  and  propriety  of  speech,  was  then, 
and  I  think  lias  ever  since  continued,  the  worst  school  in  England  for 
that  accomplishment ;  and  so  will  remain,  till  better  care  be  taken  in  the 
education  of  our  nobility,  that  they  may  set  out  in  the  world  with  some 
foundation  of  literature,  in  order  to  quahfy  them  for  patterns  of  polite- 
ness.— Swift.  3.  We  left  Italy  with  a  fine  wind,  which  continued  three 
days ;  when  a  violent  storm  drove  us  to  the  coast  of  Sardinia,  which  is 
free  from  all  kinds  of  poisonous  and  deadly  herbs,  except  one ;  which 
resembles  parsley,  and  which,  they  say,  causes  those  who  eat  it  to  die 
of  laughing.  4.  At  Coleridge's  table  we  were  introduced  to  Count 
Frioli,  a  foreigner  of  engaging  manners  and  fine  conversational  powers, 
who  was  killed  the  following  day  by  a  stcan\boat  explosion.  5.  The  lion 
is  a  noble  animal,  and  has  been  known  to  live  fifty  years  in  a  state  of 
confinement.  6.  Haydn  (who  was  the  son  of  a  poor  wheelwright,  and  is 
best  known  to  us  by  a  noble  oratorio  called  "  The  Creation  ",  which  he  is 
said  to  have  composed  after  a  season  of  solemn  prayer  for  divine  assist- 
ance) wrote  fine  pieces  of  music  when  he  was  no  more  than  ten  years 
old.  *?.  The  famous  poisoned  valley  of  Java  (which,  as  Mr.  Loudon,  a 
recent  traveller  in  that  region,  informs  us,  is  twenty  miles  in  length  and 
is  filled  with  skeletons  of  men  and  birds  ;  and  into  which  it  is  said  that 
the  neighboring  tribes  are  in  the  habit  of  driving  criminals,  as  a  conven- 
ient mode  of  executing  capital  punishment)  has  proved  to  be  the  crater 
of  an  extinct  volcano,  in  which  carbonic  acid  is  generated  in  great  quan- 
tities, as  in  the  Grotto  del  Cane  at  Naples.  8.  The  Chinese  women  are 
for  the  most  part  industrious ;  and  use,  as  embellishments  of  their  beauty, 
paint,  false  hair,  oils,  and  pork  fat,  9.  London,  which  is  a  very  dirty 
city,  has  a  population  of  more  than  three  millions.  10.  We  next  took 
the  cars,  which  were  filled  to  overflowing,  and  brought  us  to  a  landing, 
where  a  boat  was  in  waiting  that  looked  as  if  it  were  a  century  old ;  but 
which,  while  we  were  examining  its  worm-eaten  sides,  put  off  at  a  rate 
which  soon  showed  us  that  its  saiUng  qualities  were  by  no  means  con- 
temptible, and  taught  us  the  practical  lesson  that  it  is  unsafe  to  judge  of 
the  merits  of  a  thing  by  its  external  appearance. 


LESSON    LXV. 

THE     FORMING     OF     STYLE. 

§  389.  As  we  have  now  considered  the  various  kinds  of 
style,  and  the  essential  properties  which  should  be  preserved 
in  them  all,  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  add  a  few  practi- 
cal suggestions  respecting  the  best  mode  of  forming  a  char- 
U 


314  THE  FORMING  OF  BTYLE. 

acteristic  manner  of  expressing  one's  thoughts.  Whether 
a  young  composer's  style  is  to  be  concise  or  diffuse,  simple 
or  labored,  nervous  or  feeble,  will  depend,  of  course,  in  a 
great  measure,  on  the  bent  of  his  mind  when  he  shall  liave 
attained  mature  years ;  but,  as  it  is  necessary  to  begin  com- 
posing at  an  early  age,  it  is  unsafe  to  trust  to  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  natural  temperament,  and  run  the  risk  of  contract- 
ing bad  habits,  which,  when  discovered,  it  may  be  hard  to 
lay  aside.  These  difficulties  it  is  best  to  avoid  by  employ- 
ing, from  the  outset,  such  aids  as  reason  and  experience  rec- 
ommend. The  object  in  so  doing  is  not  to  sacrifice  nature 
to  art,  to  restrain  the  flow  of  genius,  or  to  destroy  individu- 
ality of  manner :  but,  on  the  other  hand,  to  promote  the 
healthy  development  of  this  individuality ;  to  modify  its  ex- 
travagances, suppress  those  of  its  features  which  are  objec- 
tionable, and  cultivate  with  the  utmost  care  such  as  are 
meritorious  and  pleasing. 

§  390.  In  the  first  place,  give  careful  and  earnest  thought 
to  the  subject  about  which  you  propose  to  write. 

Though  at  first  sight  this  may  seem  to  have  little  to  do  with  the  for- 
mation of  style,  the  relation  between  the  two  is  in  reality  extremely  close. 
Before  we  have  ourselves  obtained  a  full,  clear,  and  decided  view  of  a 
subject,  we  can  not  hope  to  communicate  such  an  impression  of  it  to 
others.  The  habit  of  writing  without  first  having  distinct  ideas  of  what 
we  intend  to  say,  will  inevitably  produce  a  loose,  confused,  and  slovenly, 
style. 

§  391.  Secondly,  compose  frequently.  Rules  are  of  sei*- 
vice,  but  they  are  not  intended  to  take  the  place  of  practice. 
Nothing  but  exercise  will  give  facility  of  composition. 

§  392.  In  the  third  place,  compose  slowly  and  with  care. 
It  is  to  hasty  and  careless  writing  that  a  bad  style  may  gen- 

§  889.  On  what  will  the  characteristics  of  a  young  composer's  style,  in  a  great 
measure,  depend  ?  What  is  said  of  the  necessity  of  using  aids  in  the  formation 
of  style  ?    What  is  the  object  in  so  doing  ? 

§  31H).  Wlmt  is  the  flrPt  nilo  relating  to  the  formation  of  style  ?  Wliat  is  said 
of  the  connection  between  stylo  and  thought?  What  will  inevitably  result  from 
writing  without  having  distinct  ideas  of  what  we  intend  to  say  ? 

§  391.  What  is  the  second  rule  t 


THTD   FOEMINO   CiF   STYLE.  B15 

erally  be  traced.  Faults  are  thus  contracted,  which  it  will 
cost  infinite  trouble  to  unlearn. 

Quintilian  (bk.  x.,  cli.  3)  alludes  to  this  point  in  the  following 
terms : — "  I  enjoin  that  such  as  are  beginning  the  practice  of  composi- 
tion -write  slowly  and  with  anxious  deliberation.  Their  great  object,  at 
first,  should  be  to  write  as  well  as  possible ;  practice  will  enable  them  to 
write  quickly.  By  degrees,  matter  will  offer  itself  still  more  readily ; 
words  will  be  at  hand  ;  composition  will  flow ;  every  thing,  as  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  a  well-ordered  family,  will  present  itself  in  its  proper  place. 
The  sum  of  the  whole  is  this :  by  hasty  composition  we  shall  never  ac- 
quire the  art  of  composing  well ;  by  writing  well,  we  shall  soon  be  able 
to  write  speedily." 

§  393.  Fourthly,  revise  carefully.  Nothing  is  more 
necessary  to  what  is  written,  or  more  important  to  the 
writer.  "Condemn,"  says  Horace,  in  his  Epistle  to  the 
Pisos,  V.  292-294,  "  condemn  that  poem  which  many  a  day 
and  many  a  blot  have  not  corrected,  and  castigated  ten 
times  to  perfect  accuracy." 

Even  the  most  experienced  writers  are  apt  to  commit  oversights,  for 
which  revision  is  the  only  remedy.  If  we  put  aside  what  has  been  writ- 
ten till  the  expressions  we  have  used  are  forgotten,  and  then  review  our 
work  with  a  cool  and  critical  eye,  as  if  it  were  the  performance  of  an- 
other, we  shall  discern  many  imperfections  which  at  first  were  overlooked. 
This  is  the  time  for  pruning  away  redundancies ;  for  seeing  that  the  parts 
of  sentences  are  correctly  arranged  and  connected  by  the  proper  parti- 
cles ;  for  observing  whether  the  requirements  of  grammar  are  strictly 
complied  with ;  and  for  bringing  style  into  a  consistent  and  effective  form. 
Disagreeable  as  this  labor  of  correction  may  be,  all  must  submit  to  it  who 
would  attain  literary  distinction,  or  even  express  their  thoughts  with  or- 
dinary propriety  and  force.  A  little  practice  will  soon  create  a  critical 
taste,  and  render  the  work,  if  not  pleasant,  at  least  easy  and  tolerable. 

§  394.  In  the  fifth  place,  study  the  style  of  the  best  au- 
thors.    Notice  their  peculiarities ;  observe  what  gives  effect 

§  392,  What  is  the  third  rule  ?  To  what  is  a  bad  style  generally  traceable  ? 
What  is  Quintilian's  advice  on  this  point? 

§  893.  What  is  the  fourth  rule  ?  What  does  Horace  say  on  this  point  ?  De- 
scribe the  most  effective  method  of  revising.  To  what,  in  this  process,  must  the 
author's  attention  be  directed?  What  is  said  of  the  necessity  of  this  labor  of 
correction  ? 

§  394.  What  is  the  fifth  rule  ?    Explain  what  is  meant  by  this.    What  is  said 


316  THE  FOKMING  OF  STYLE. 

to  their  writings ;  compare  one  with  another ;  and,  in  compos- 
ing, endeavor  to  avoid  their  faults  and  imitate  tlieir  beauties. 

No  servile  imitation  is  here  recommended.  Tliis  is  in  the  highest  de- 
gree dangerous,  generally  resulting  in  stiffness  and  artificiality  of  manner, 
and  a  lack  of  self-confidence,  which  is  fatal  to  success  in  composition. 
Avoid  adopting  a  favorite  author's  peculiar  phrases  or  constructions.  "  It 
is  infinitely  better,"  says  Blair,  "  to  have  something  that  is  our  own, 
though  of  moderate  beauty,  than  to  affect  to  shine  in  borrowed  ornaments, 
which  will,  at  last,  betray  the  utter  poverty  of  our  genius."  Modifying 
our  style  by  assimilating  it  to  one  which  we  particularly  admire,  or  which 
the  world  has  stamped  with  its  approval,  is  quite  a  different  thing  from 
laying  aside  our  own  individuality  entirely,  to  adopt  another's,  which  we 
have  but  a  slight  chance  of  being  able  to  maintain. 

No  exercise  is  likely  to  aid  us  more  in  acquiring  a  good  style  than  to 
translate  frequently  from  the  writings  of  some  eminent  English  author 
into  our  own  words  ;  to  take,  for  instance,  a  page  of  Addison  or  Gold- 
smith, and,  having  read  it  over  until  we  have  fully  mastered  the  meaning, 
to  lay  aside  the  book  and  attempt  to  reproduce  the  passage  from  memory. 
A  comparison  of  what  we  have  written  with  the  original  will  then  show 
us  in  what  the  fiiults  of  our  style  consist,  and  how  we  may  correct  them ; 
and,  among  the  different  modes  of  expressing  the  same  thought,  will  en- 
able us  to  perceive  which  is  the  most  beautiful. 

§  395.  Avoid  such  mannerism  as  would  prevent  you 
from  adapting  your  style  to  your  subject  and  to  the  capac- 
ity of  those  you  address.  Keep  the  object  proposed  in 
view,  and  let  your  mode  of  expression  be  strictly  consistent 
therewith.  Nothing  is  more  absui'd  than  to  attempt  a  florid, 
poetical  style,  on  occasions  when  it  is  our  business  only  to 
reason  ;  or  to  speak  w  ith  elaborate  pomp  of  expression,  be- 
fore persons  to  whom  such  magnificence  is  unintelligible. 

MISCELLANEOUS  EXERCISE  ON  THE  ESSENTIAL  PROPERTIES  OF  STYLE. 
In  the  following  sentences,  make  such  corrections  as  arc 
required  by  the  rules  for  Purity,  Propriety,  Precision,  Clear- 
ness, Strength,  Harmony,  and  Unity  : — 

of  servile  imitation  ?  What  does  Blair  say  on  this  subject  ?  Show  the  difference 
between  a  fservile  imitation  and  the  course  here  advised.  What  exercise  is  lllicly 
to  aid  us  ? 

§  895.  What  is  the  lat^t  rule,  relating  to  the  adaptation  of  the  style  to  the  sub- 
ject ?    What  advice  is  {,'iveu  on  this  hi  ad  ? 


exerOIse  on  style.  317 

1.  Misfortunes  never  arj^ive  singly,  but  crov/d  upon  us  en  masse  when 
we  arc  least  able  to  resist  them.  2.  A  [peaceable,  or  peaceful  ?]  valley ," 
— a  [peaceable,  or  peaceful  ?]  disposition.  3.  I  decline  accepting  of  the 
situation.  4.  Petrarch  was  much  esteemed  by  his  countrymen,  who,  even 
at  the  present  day,  mention  with  reverence  the  poll  of  Vaucluae  and  the 
inventor  of  the  sonnet.  5.  This  is  so;  and  so  cruel  an  [act,  or  action  ?]  has 
rarely  been  heard  of.  6.  The  lad  can  not  leave  his  father ;  for,  if  he 
should  leave  /w'wi,  he  would  die.  7.  The  works  of  art  receive  a  great  ad- 
vantage from  the  resemblance  which  they  have  to  those  of  nature,  be- 
cause here  the  similitude  is  not  only  pleasant,  but  the  pattern  is  perfect. 
8.  A  friend  exaggerates  a  man's  virtues  ;  one  who  is  hostile  endeavors  to 
magnify  his  crimes  (§  3'74).  9.  This  is  not  a  principle  that  we  can  act 
on  and  adhere  to.  10.  Diana  of  the  Ephesians  is  great.  11.  We  do  things 
frequently  that  we  repent  of  afterwards.  12.  Great  and  rich  men  owe 
much  to  chance,  which  gives  to  one  what  it  takes  from  others.  13.  There 
are  those  who  allow  their  envy  of  those  wJio  are  more  fortunate  than  them- 
selves to  get  the  better  of  them  to  such  an  extent  that  they  try  to  injure 
them  all  they  can.  14.  [Classic,  or  classical  ?]  and  English  school ; — a 
[classic,  or  classical?]  statue.  15.  Running  out  to  see  whether  there 
was  a  new  emeute^  which  the  havtcnr  of  the  new  governor  rendered  very 
plausible,  I  came  within  an  ace  of  being  done  for.  IG,  They  attempted  to 
remain  incog.  17.  If  a  man  have  little  meiit,  he  had  need  have  much 
modesty.  18.  The  laws  of  nature  are  truly  what  Lord  Bacon  styles  his 
aphorisms, — laws  of  laws.  Civil  laws  are  always  imperfect,  and  often  false 
deductions  from  them,  or  applications  of  them  ;  nay,  they  stand,  in  many 
instances,  in  direct  opposition  to  them.  19.  Being  content  with  deserving 
a  triumph,  he  refused  the  honor  of  it.  20.  That  temperamental  dignotions, 
and  conjectures  of  prevalent  humors,  may  be  collected  from  spots  in  our 
nails,  we  are  not  averse  to  concede.  21.  It  can  not  be  impertinent  or 
ridiculous,  therefore,  in  such  a  country,  whatever  it  might  be  in  the  Abbot 
of  St.  Real's,  which  was  Savoy,  I  think ;  or  in  Peru,  under  the  Incas, 
where  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega  says  it  was  lawful  for  none  but  the  nobility 
to  study — for  men  of  all  degrees  to  instruct  themselves  in  those  affairs 
wherein  they  may  be  actors,  or  judges  of  those  that  act,  or  controllers  of 
those  that  judge.  22.  The  moon  Avas  casting  a  pale  light  on  the  numer- 
ous graves  that  were  scattered  before  me,  as  it  peered  above  the  horizon 
when  I  opened  the  little  gate  of  the  church-yard.  23.  This  work,  having 
been  fiercely  attacked  by  critics,  he  proposes  for  the  present  to  lay  aside. 
24.  Men  look  with  an  evil  eye  upon  the  good  that  is  in  others,  and  think 
that  their  reputation  obscures  t7icm,  and  that  their  commendable  qualities 
do  stand  in  their  light ;  and  therefore  they  do  what  they  can  to  cast  a 
cloud  over  them,  that  the  bright  shining  of  their  virtues  may  not  obscure 
the)7i.  25.  In  this  uneasy  state,  both  of  his  public  and  private  life,  Cicero 
was  oppressed  by  a  new  and  cruel  afiiiction,  the  death  of  his  beloved 
daughter,  Tullia,  which  happened  soon  after  her  divorce  from  Dolabella, 
whose  manners  and  humors  were  entirely  disagreeable  to  her.  26.  The 
erroneous  judgment  of  parents  concerning  the  conduct  of  schoolmasters, 
has  crushed  the  peace  of  many  an  ingenious  man  who  is  engaged  in  the 
care  of  youth ;  and  paved  the  way  to  the  ruin  of  hopeful  boys.  27.  The 
discontented  man  (as  his  spleen  irritates  and  sours  his  temper,  and  leads 
him  to  discharge  its  venom  on  all  with  whom  he  stands  connected)  is 
never  found  without  a  great  share  of  malignity.  28.  We  have  been 
chomed  out  of  our  rights  by  these  clod-polls  and  blackguards.     29.  As  no 


318  CRITICISM. 

one  is  free  from  faults,  so  few  want  good  qualities  (§  378).  30.  No  man 
of  feeling  can  look  upon  the  ocean  without /ec^m/y  an  emotion  of  grandeur. 
\\\.  The  niei'cenariness  of  many  tradesmen  leads  them  to  speak  derogatoi-ily 
of  their  neighbors.  32.  With  Cicero's  i^nVings,  it  is  riglU  that  young  di- 
vines should  be  conversant ;  but  they  should  not  give  them  the  prefer- 
ence to  Demosthenes,  who,  by  many  degrees,  excelled  the  other ;  at  least 
as  an  orator.  33.  After  he  has  finished  his  elementary  studies,  which 
will  discipline  his  mind,  and  fit  it  for  the  pursuit  of  more  advanced 
branches,  I  advise  him  to  conunence  with  the  ancient  languages,  which 
'^ill,  by  easy  stages,  prepare  him  for  the  acquisition  of  the  modern 
tongues  ;  whence  he  may  with  propriety  proceed  to  the  careful  study  of 
the  higher  departments  of  mathematics  and  belles-lettres,  which  form  an 
important  part  of  every  scholar's  education.  34.  Such  were  the  prudence 
and  energy  of  Cicero's  course  during  this  critical  state  of  afiairs,  that  his 
countrymen  overlooked  his  self-conceitedness^  and  vied  with  each  other  in 
testifying  their  respect  to  "  the  father  of  his  country  ".  35.  He  used  to 
•me  many  expressions,  which,  though  useful^  are  not  usually  used,  and  have 
not  come  into  general  use. 


LESSON    LXVI. 

CRITICISM. 

g  398.  JDefiiiitlon. — Criticism  (from  the  Greek  Kpivo,  1 
judge)  may  be  defined  as  the  art  of  judging  with  propriety 
concerning  any  object  or  combination  of  objects.  In  the 
more  limited  signification  in  wliich  it  is  generally  used,  its 
province  is  confined  to  literature,  philology,  and  the  fine  arts, 
and  to  subjects  of  antiquarian,  scientific,  or  liistorical,  investi- 
gation. In  tliis  sense,  every  branch  of  literary  study,  as  well 
as  each  of  the  arts,  has  its  proper  criticism. 

§  397.  Rules. — It  is  criticism  that  has  developed  the 
rules  and  principles  of  Rhetoric.  As  was  remarked  wlien 
we  first  entered  on  the  study  of  tliis  subject,  its  rules  are 
not  arbitrary,  but  have  been  deduced  from  a  careful  exami- 


§  890.  From  what  ia  the  term  criticism  derived  ?    What  does  It  Bignify  ?    As 
generally  used,  to  what  i«  it  coufined  ? 

S  897.  How  have  the  rules  and  principles  of  rhetoric  been  developed  f    What 


CRITICISM.  310 

nation  of  those  great  productions  wliich  have  been  admired 
as  beautiful  in  every  age.  Nor  has  beauty  been  the  sole  ob- 
ject of  the  critic's  search.  Truth,  particularly  in  history  and 
the  sciences,  it  has  been  his  province  not  only  to  seek  out, 
but,  when  found,  to  use  as  a  balance  in  weighing  the  objects 
on  which  he  passes  judgment.  The  office  of  criticism,  there- 
fore, is,  first  to  establish  the  essential  ideas  which  answer  to 
our  conceptions  of  the  beautiful  or  the  true  in  each  branch 
of  study ;  and  next  to  point  out,  by  reference  to  these  ideas, 
the  excellencies  or  deficiencies  of  individual  works,  according 
as  they  approach,  or  vary  from,  the  standard  in  question. 

Thus,  historical  criticism  teaches  us  to  distinguish  the  true  from  the 
false,  or  the  probable  from  the  improbable,  in  historical  works ;  scien- 
tific criticism  has  in  view  the  same  object  in  each  respective  line  of  sci- 
ence :  literary  criticism,  in  a  general  sense,  investigates  the  merits  and 
demerits  of  style  or  diction,  according  to  the  received  standard  of  excel- 
lence in  every  language ;  while,  in  poetry  and  the  arts,  it  develops  the 
principles  of  that  more  refined  and  exquisite  sense  of  beauty  which  forms 
the  ideal  model  of  perfection  in  each. 

§  398.  Hdation  hetioeen  its  ancient  and  its  present  char- 
acter.— Criticism  originated  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
at  an  early  day,  and  was  carried  by  them  to  a  high  degree 
of  perfection.  Aristotle,  Dionysius  Halicamasseus,  and 
Longinus,  among  the  former,  and,  among  the  latter,  Cicero 
and  Quintilian,  did  much  towards  awakening  a  critical  taste 
in  their  respective  countrymen ;  enabling  them  to  appreciate 
propriety  of  diction,  and  making  them  acquainted  Avith  those 
minute  matters,  which,  however  insignificant  they  may  ap- 
pear, are  essential  to  effective  composition. 

The  classical  critics,  however,  confined  themselves  mainly  to  that 
department  of  their  art  which  has  reference  to  the  principles  of  beauty. 
Their  sphere  of  knowledge  being  more  limited  than  ours,  their  minds 

beeides  beauty  has  been  the  object  of  the  critic's  search  ?  What,  then,  is  the 
oflace  of  criticism?  What  does  historical  criticism  teach  us?  What  is  the  ob- 
ject of  scientific  criticism  ?    What,  of  literary  criticism  ? 

§  398.  What  is  said  of  criticism  among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  ?  What 
authors  are  mentioned  as  distinguished  in  this  department?  What  eflfect  did 
their  efforts  produce  on  their  countrymen  ?   To  what  did  the  classical  critics  con- 


^20  CRITICISE. 

were  more  sedulously  exercised  in  reflecting  on  their  own  )erceptiona. 
Hence  the  astonishing  progress  they  made  in  the  fine  arts  ^  and  hence, 
in  literature,  beauty  of  language  and  sentiment  was  their  hi^iiest  aim. 
Accordingly,  the  criticisms  of  antiquity  relate  almost  exclusively  vo  liter- 
ature and  the  arts ;  and  the  terra  is,  therefore,  still  confined,  in  its  most 
popular  signification,  to  those  provinces  of  research. 

The  criticism  of  truth,  which  pertains  chiefly  to  history  and  science, 
was  of  later  origin ;  but  may  be  regarded  as  closely  allied  to  the  criti- 
cism of  beauty,  inasmuch  as  it  is  regulated  by  analogous  principles,  and 
minds  which  possess  a  high  degree  of  judgment  in  the  one  are  generally 
capable  of  farming  right  apprehensions  in  the  other.  One  principle,  im- 
portant to  be  noted,  is  equally  true  of  each :  that,  whether  beauty  or 
truth  is  the  aim,  extensive  knowledge  of  the  subject,  as  well  as  education 
and  practice,  is  necessary  in  the  sound  critic ; — yet  knowledge  alone  is 
not  suflicient;  the  ability  to  discriminate  and  judge  correctly  is  still 
more  important,  and  this  no  knowledge,  however  great,  can  stipply.  To 
be  acquainted  with  a  rule,  and  to  be  able  to  apply  it  in  difficult  eases, 
are  entirely  different  things. 

§  399.  Literary  Criticism. — ^We  have  here  to  do  with 
criticism,  only  so  far  as  it  pertains  to  the  works  of  literature. 
The  rules  of  good  writing  having  been  deduced  in  the  manner 
above  described,  it  is  the  business  of  the  critic  to  employ 
them  as  a  standard,  by  a  judicious  comparison  with  which  he 
may  distinguish  what  is  beautiful  and  what  is  faulty  in  every 
performance.  He  must  look  at  the  sentiments  expressed, 
and  judge  of  their  correctness  and  consistency  ;  he  nmst 
view  the  performance  as  a  whole,  and  see  whether  it  clearly 
and  properly  embodies  the  ideas  intended  to  be  conveyed ; 
he  must  examine  whether  there  is  sufficient  variety  in  the 
style,  must  note  its  beauties,  and  show,  if  it  is  susceptible 
of  improvement,  in  what  tliat  improvement  should  consist ; 
he  must  see  whether  the  principles  of  syntax  or  rhetoric  are 
violated ;  and,  finally,  must  extend  his  scrutiny  even  to  the 


line  themselves  ?  How  Is  the  astonishing  progress  of  the  ancients  in  the  fine  arts 
explained  ?  In  literature,  what  was  their  highest  aim  ?  Acconlipgly.  to  what 
did  thdr  criticisms  relate?  To  wlint  does  the  criticism  of  t rath  chiefly  rcfor? 
Wliiit  is  the  coimection  between  it  and  the  criticism  of  beauty?  What  impor- 
tant principle  is  equally  true  of  hotii  ? 

§  31)9.  With  whnt  department  of  criticism  have  we  here  to  do?    Point  owt  the 
various  duties  of  the  literary  critic.    By  what  must  he  be  guided  ?    To  what 


CEITICISM.  ^21 

individual  words  employed.  And  all  this  must  be  done  with- 
out allowing  prejudice  to  bias  his  decisions,  or  the  desire  of 
displaying  his  own  knowledge  to  lead  him  from  the  legiti- 
mate pursuit  of  his  subject. 

The  critic  must  be  guided  by  feeling  as  well  as  rules  ;  otherwise,  his 
efforts  will  result  in  a  pedantry  as  useless  as  it  is  distasteful.  He  should 
not,  on  account  of  minor  imperfections,  condemn,  as  a  whole,  a  perform- 
ance which  evinces  in  its  author  deep  and  correct  feeling,  or  possesses 
other  merits  equally  important.  He  should  carefully  draw  a  distinction 
between  what  is  good  and  what  is  bad,  giving  full  credit  for  the  one  and 
showing  how  to  correct  the  other.  His  criticisms  should  not  be  con- 
fined to  little  faults  and  errors,  which  no  writer,  however  careful,  has 
been  able  entirely  to  avoid.  A  true  critic  will  rather  dwell  on  excel- 
lencies than  on  imperfections ;  will  seek  to  discover  the  concealed  beau- 
ties of  a  writer,  and  communicate  to  the  world  such  things  as  are  worthy 
of  their  observation.  This,  indeed,  is  a  more  difficult  task,  and  involves 
a  more  delicate  taste  and  a  profounder  knowledge,  than  indiscriminate 
fault-finding.     As  Dryden  has  justly  remarked, 

"  Errors,  like  straws,  upon  the  surface  flow ; 
He  who  would  search  for  pearls,  must  dive  below.'" 

§  400.  Abuse. — The  most  exquisite  words  and  finest 
strokes  of  an  author  are  those  which  often  appear  most  ex- 
ceptionable to  a  man  deficient  in  learning  or  delicacy  of 
taste ;  and  it  is  these  that  a  captious  and  undistinguishing 
critic  generally  attacks  with  the  greatest  violence.  In  this 
case,  recourse  is  often  had  to  ridicule.  A  little  wit  is  capa- 
ble of  making  a  beauty  as  well  as  a  blemish  the  subject  of 
derision.  Though  such  treatment  of  an  author  may  have  its 
effect  with  some,  who  erroneously  think  that  the  sentiment 
criticised  is  ridiculous  instead  of  the  wit  with  which  it  is  at- 
tacked, yet  in  the  intelligent  reader  it  will  naturally  produce 
indignation  or  disgust. 


Fhould  his  criticisms  not  be  confined  ?  On  what  will  the  true  critic  dwell  ?  Is 
the  discovery  of  beauties  or  defects  the  more  difficult  task  ?  What  couplet  of 
Dryden's  illustrates  this  point  ? 

§  400.  What  is  said  of  an  author's  most  exquisite  words  and  finest  strokes  ? 
To  what  does  tlie  malicious  critic  often  have  recourse  ?  What  is  said  of  the  use 
of  wit  or  ridicule  in  criticism?  What  habit  is  a  critic  who  indulges  in  ridicule 
apt  to  form  ?    How  is  pleasantry  of  this  kind  characterized  ? 


322  CRITXCISM. 

When,  moreover,  a  critic  frequently  indulges  in  such  a  course,  he  is 
apt  to  find  fault  with  every  thing  against  which  he  can  bring  this  favorite 
Aveapon  to  bear ;  and  often  censures  a  passage,  not  because  there  is  any 
thing  wrong  in  it,  but  merely  from  the  fact  that  it  affords  him  an  oppor- 
tunity of  being  merry  at  another's  expense.  Such  pleasantry  is  unsea- 
sonable, as  well  as  disingenuous  and  unfair. 

§  401.  Objections, — The  objection  most  commonly  urged 
against  criticism  is  that  it  abridges  the  natural  liberty  of 
genius,  and  imposes  shackles  wliich  are  fatal  to  freedom  of 
thought  and  expression.  This  argument  has  been  noticed 
before.  It  is  sufficient  here  to  say  that  the  cutting  off  of 
faults  can  not  be  called  an  abridgment  of  freedom ;  or,  if  it 
can,  it  is  well  that  such  freedom  should  be  abridged.  The 
reasonable  author  is  not  unwilling  to  have  his  work  examined 
by  the  principles  of  good  taste  and  sound  understanding ; 
and  this  is  all  that  the  true  critic  proposes  to  do.  There  may, 
indeed,  be  some  unreasonable  critics  who  carry  their  strict- 
ures to  the  verge  of  personal  abuse ;  but  their  violence  gives 
no  more  ground  for  objecting  to  healthy  and  proper  criticism 
than  the  fact  that  there  are  unsound  reasoners  affords  for 
inveigliing  against  all  logic. 

A  more  specious  objection  is  sometimes  made,  which  is 
aimed  particularly  at  the  principles  on  which  criticism  is 
founded.  These,  it  is  charg-ed,  are  arbitrary  and  untrue,  be- 
cause it  sometimes  happens  that  what  tlie  critic  condemns 
the  pubUc  receive  with  approbation.  Were  this  often  the 
case,  there  would  be  ground  to  doubt  whether  the  art  of  the 
critic,  and  indeed  all  the  departments  of  rhetoric,  are  not 
resting  on  a  false  foundation.  Such  instances,  though  very 
rare,  do  sometimes  occur.  It  must  be  admitted  that  works 
containing  gross  violations  of  the  rules  of  art  have  attained 
a  general  and  even  a  lasting  reputation.  Such  are  tlie  plays 
of  Shakspeare,  which,  considered  as  dramatic  poems,  are 

§  401.  What  is  most  commonly  urged  as  an  objection  acrainst  critlciBm  ?  How 
is  tliiu  objection  answered?  What  more  specious  objection  is  eonielimcs  ad- 
vanced? What  admission  is  made?  Explain  how  this  fact  furnishes  no  argu- 
ment la  favor  of  tho  objector.     Whose  produetious  are  instanced  as  having 


CRITICISM.  323 

irregular  in  the  highest  degree.  But  it  must  be  observed 
that  they  have  gained  public  admiration,  not  by  their  trans- 
gressions of  the  laws  of  criticism,  but  in  spite  of  such  trans- 
gressions. The  beauties  they  possess,  in  points  where  they 
conform  to  the  rules  of  art,  are  sufficient  to  overshadow  their 
blemishes  and  inspire  a  degree  of  satisfaction  superior  to  the 
disgust  arising  from  the  latter.  Shakspeare  pleases,  not  by 
bringing  the  transactions  of  many  years  into  one  play,  not 
by  his  mixture  of  tragedy  and  comedy  in  the  same  piece, 
nor  by  his  strained  thoughts  and  affected  witticisms.  These 
we  regard  as  blemishes,  traceable  to  the  tone  of  the  age  in 
which  he  lived.  But  these  faults  are  forgotten  in  his  ani- 
mated and  masterly  representations  of  character,  his  lively 
descriptions,  his  striking  and  original  conceptions,  and  above 
all  his  nice  appreciation  of  the  emotions  and  passions  of  the 
human  heart;  beauties  which  true  criticism  teaches  us  to 
value  no  less  than  nature  enables  us  to  feel. 

We  have  not  here  the  space  for  an  example  of  extended 
criticism.  Blair,  whose  lucid  pen,  correct  taste,  sound  judg- 
ment, and  extensive  reading,  eminently  fitted  hun  for  the 
task,  furnishes  in  his  Lectures  (xx.-xxiv.)  several  admirable 
papers  on  the  style  of  Addison  and  Swift.  To  these,  the 
student  who  wishes  specimens  of  critical  writing  extended 
to  some  length,  will  do  well  to  refer.  We  here  present  a 
brief  examination  of  two  passages  in  which  verbal  criticism 
is  exemplified. 

SPECIMENS   OP  VERBAL   CRITICISM. 

1,  "  Man,  considered  in  himself,  is  a  very  helpless  and  a  very  wretched  beiujji 
Launched  alone  on  the  sea  of  life,  he  would  soon  suffer  shipwreck." 

We  have  here  a  proposition  strikingly  true,  expressed  in  clear  and 
forcible  terms.  The  first  word,  "  man,"  is  universally  employed  by  the 
best  authors  as  an  appellative  for  the  human  race.  "  Man,  considered  in 
himself,"  signifies,  the  human  family  viewed  as  individuals  independent 
of  each  other.  In  this  state,  says  the  author,  he  is  "  a  very  helpless 
being".  The  term  "  helpless  "  here  implies  the  want  of  power  to  succor 
himself:  and  it  is  evident  that,  if  man  were  left  to  himself  in  infancy, 

gained  a  world-wide  popularity  in  spite  of  their  irregularities  ?    To  what  is  this 
popularity  attributahle  ? 


324  CRITICISM. 

he  would  perish;  and  that,  if  altogether  detached  from  society  in  man- 
hood, it  would  be  only  with  great  difficulty  that  he  could  procure  for 
himself  either  the  comforts  or  the  necessaries  of  life. 

But  man,  "  considered  in  himself,"  is  not  only  a  very  helpless,  but 
also  "a  A^ery  wretched  being".  It  will  be  observed  that  additional  em- 
phasis is  here  communicated  by  the  repetition  of  the  article  and  the  ad- 
verb. He  is  not  merely  a  very  helpless  and  wretched  being,  but  "  a  very 
helpless  and  a  very  wretched  being".  The  term  "wretched"  is  gen- 
erally used  as  synonymous  with  nnJiappif  or  miserable ;  but,  in  this  pas- 
sage, it  expresses  the  meaning  of  the  author  more  precisely  than  either 
of  these  words  would  have  done.  Unhappy  may  denote  merely  the  un- 
easiness of  a  man  who  may  be  happy  if  he  pleases ;  the  discontented  arc 
nnhappy,  because  they  think  others  more  prosperous  than  themselves. 
Miserable  is  applied  to  persons  whose  minds  are  tormented  by  the  stings 
of  conscience,  agitated  by  the  violence  of  passion,  or  harassed  by  worldly 
vexations ;  and,  accordingly,  we  say  that  wicked  men  are  miserable.  But 
"  wretched  ",  derived  from  the  Saxon  word  for  an  exile,  literally  signifies 
cciat  away,  or  abandoned.  Hence  appears  the  proper  application  of  the 
word  in  this  sentence :  man,  if  left  to  himself,  might  indeed  exist  in  a 
solitary  state  without  being  either  unhappy  or  miserable,  provided  his 
bodily  wants  were  supplied ;  though  he  certainly  would  be  a  very 
"  wretched  "  being,  when  deprived  of  all  the  comforts  of  social  life,  and 
all  the  endearments  of  friends  and  kindred. 

Having  thus  stated  his  proposition,  the  author  illustrates  it  with  a 
metaphor.  The  figure,  though  appropriate,  is  trite ;  life  has,  from  time 
immemorial,  been  compared  to  a  sea,  and  man  to  a  vo^'ager.  An  origi- 
nal comparison,  which  a  little  thought  could  hardly  have  failed  to  sug- 
gest, would  have  been  more  striking  and  effective. 

2.  "  Education  is  the  most  excellent  endowment,  as  it  enlarges  the  mind,  pro- 
motes its  powers,  and  renders  a  man  estimable  in  the  eyes  of  society." 

This  sentence,  though  it  contains  many  pompous  words,  is  a  remark- 
able example  of  a  style  which  lacks  propriety.  Education  is  not  an 
"  endowment " ;  for  an  endowment  is  a  natural  gift,  such  as  taste  or 
imagination.  Education  does  not  "  enlarge  "  the  "  mind  "  ;  though  it 
may,  in  a  figurative  sense,  enlarge  its  capacities.  Neither  can  it  "pro- 
mote "  the  mental  "  powers  "  themselves  ;  but  it  may  promote  their  im- 
provement. Nor  does  it  follow,  that,  because  a  man  has  improved  his 
mind  by  education,  he  is  on  tiiat  account  "estimable",  esteem  being  pro- 
duced only  by  intrinsic  worth ;  but  a  good  education  may  render  a  man 
respectable.  The  sentiment  which  the  author  intended  to  convey  should 
have  been  expressed  thus:  "Education  is  the  most  excellent  attainment, 
as  it  enlarges  the  capacities  of  the  mind,  promotes  their  improvement, 
and  renders  a  man  respectable  in  the  eyes  of  society." 


PART    IV. 

PROSE    COMPOSITION. 


LESSON    LXVII. 

INVENTION. — ANALYSIS     OF    SUBJECTS. 

§  402.  Up  to  the  present  point,  the  attention  of  the  stu- 
dent has  been  directed  chiefly  to  the  dress  in  which  he 
should  clothe  his  thoughts ;  we  now  proceed  to  the  thoughts 
themselves,  and  those  practical  exercises  in  composition,  to 
prepare  for  which  has  been  the  object  of  the  preceding  pages. 

The  process  of  evolving  thoughts  in  connection  with  any 
particular  subject  is  known  as  Invention.  It  is  this  that 
furnishes  the  material  of  composition,  and  on  which,  in  a 
great  measure,  its  value  depends. 

Here,  moreover,  lies  most  of  the  difficdty  which  the  young  expe- 
rience in  writing.  Let  them  have  definite  thoughts,  and  they  will  gen- 
erally find  it  easy  to  express  themselves.  But  how  are  they  to  deal  with 
intangible  things ;  to  form  the  necessary  conceptions ;  and  to  insure 
that,  when  formed,  they  will  be  worthy  of  being  embodied  and  preserved 

§  402.  Up  to  the  present  point,  to  what  has  the  student's  attention  been  di- 
rected ?  To  what  do  we  now  proceed  ?  What  is  Invention  ?  What  does  it  fur- 
nish ?    What  is  said  of  the  difllculty  which  the  youug  experieuce  in  writing  ? 


326  INVENTION. 

in  language  ?  This  question  we  now  proceed  to  answer ;  not  claiming 
that  the  want  of  intellectual  ability  can  be  supplied  by  this  or  any  other 
course  ;  yet  believing  that  those  to  whom  composition  is  distasteful,  will, 
by  pursuing  the  plan  here  prescribed,  find  most  of  their  difficulty  vanish, 
and  that  all  who  fairly  test  the  system  will  improve  more  rapidly  than 
they  could  do  if  left  to  chance  or  their  own  unaided  efforts. 

§  403.  As  soon  as  a  subject  lias  been  selected,  the  first 
thing  required  is  thought, — careful,  deliberate,  concentrated, 
thought.  When  Newton  was  asked  how  he  had  succeeded 
in  making  so  many  great  discoveries,  he  replied,  "  By  think- 
ing." This  labor  the  composer  must  undergo ;  no  instruc- 
tion or  aid  from  foreign  sources  can  take  its  place.  It  must 
be  patient  and  deliberate  thought,  moreover,  not  hasty  or 
superficial ;  it  must  be  original  thought,  not  a  reproduction 
of  the  ideas  of  others ;  it  must  be  well-directed  thought, 
fixed  on  a  definite  object,  and  not  allowed  to  ^vander  from 
one  thing  to  another ;  it  must  be  exhaustive  thought,  em- 
bracing the  subject  in  all  its  relations. 

When  this  task  has  been  fairly  performed,  the  next  step 
is  in  order.  This  is  an  Analysis  of  the  subject,  or  a  drawing 
out  of  the  various  heads  which  suggest  themselves  to  the 
mind  as  appropriate  to  the  theme  of  discourse.  Such  heads 
will  of  course  differ  according  to  the  subject  mider  considera- 
tion, as  will  appear  when  we  treat  in  turn  of  the  different 
kinds  of  composition.  There  is  so  general  a  resemblance  be- 
tween them,  however,  that  from  an  example  or  two  there 
will  be  no  difficulty  in  understanding  what  is  here  meant. 

Suppose,  for  instance,  that  Anger  is  the  subject.  On  a  little  reflec- 
tion, such  questions  as  the  following  will  suggest  themselves  to  the  com- 
poser ;  and,  as  they  occur,  he  notes  them  down : — 

What  is  meant  by  the  term  Anger  ? — What  visible  effect  docs  this 
passion  produce  on  the  person  indulging  in  it  ? — IIow  does  he  feel,  when 
his  fit  of  passion  has  subsided  ? — Morally  speaking,  what  is  the  charac- 


§403.  When  a  subject  has  been  pclcctod,  what  is  the  first  thing  required? 
What  kind  of  thought  is  hero  referred  to?  To  what  did  Newton  attribute  his 
discoveries  ?  What  step  is  next  iu  order  ?  What  is  meant  by  analyzing  a  sub- 
ject ?    Suppose  Anger  to  be  the  theme,  what  questions  wiil  suggest  themselves 


ANALYSIS   OF   SUBJECTS.  327 

ter  of  tRis  passion? — What  are  its  usual  effects  on  individuals ?— To 
what  may  the  angry  man  be  compared  ? — What  examples  does  history 
afford  ? — What  has  been  said  by  others  respecting  Anger  ? — What  are 
the  best  modes  of  regulating  this  passion,  or  of  avoiding  its  occasions  ? — 
What  are  its  effects  on  society  ? — Draw  a  contrast  between  a  man  of  calm, 
placid,  temper,  and  one  of  a  hasty,  irritable,  disposition. — Show  the  ad- 
vantage, under  as  many  heads  as  possible,  of  regulating  angry  feelings. 

Here,  then,  is  the  germ  of  a  composition.  Abundant  material  is  now  at 
hand.  Thoughts  beget  thoughts ;  from  these  ideas,  others  will  naturally 
spring  durmg  the  process  of  writing.  Before  proceeding  to  this,  however, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  arrange  these  heads  in  their  proper  order,  so  that 
a  logical  connection  may  be  preserved  throughout  the  whole.  The  leading 
subject  of  inquiry  must  be  kept  constantly  in  view,  and  all  thoughts  must 
be  rejected  that  do  not  bear  directly  upon  it.  Unity  is  as  necessary  in  an 
extended  composition  as  in  a  single  sentence.  The  time  to  insure  sequence 
and  unity  of  parts  is  when  the  Analysis  is  being  revised.  Beginning  with 
a  general  introduction,  arranging  properly,  enlarging  on  some  of  the  heads 
by  following  out  the  trains  of  thought  suggested,  and  closing  with  practi- 
cal reflections,  the  analysis,  as  improved  by  the  writer,  would  stand  as 
follows : — 

ANALYSIS   OP   AN   ESSAY   ON   ANGER. 

I.  Introdtidion.     The  passions  in  general ;  relation  which  anger  sus- 
tains to  the  rest. 
II.  Definition.     What  anger  is.     A  proverb  found  in  various  languages 
says  it  is  "  a  short-lived  madness  ".     Show  why. 

1.  A  man  in  a  violent  fit  of  anger  looks  as  if  he  were  insane ;  show  in 
what  respects. 

2.  His  mind  is 'beyond  the  control  of  reason  and  judgment;  it  is 
like  a  chariot  without  a  driver,  or  a  ship  in  a  storm  without  a 
pilot. 

3.  He  says  and  does  things  so  unreasonable  that  they  must  be  the 
result  of  temporary  derangement.  He  may  be  compared  to  a  tor- 
nado, a  mountain  torrent,  or  a  conflagration,  to  whose  fury  none 
can  set  bounds,  and  whose  disastrous  effects  are  visited  even  on 
the  innocent. 

4.  The  world,  and  even  the  law,  in  a  measure,  deal  with  him  as  if  he 
were  a  maniac. 

5.  Even  the  angry  man  himself  admits  that  he  has  no  control  over 
his  reason,  deeming  it  sufficient  apology  for  the  most  unseemly 
blow  or  word  to  say  that  it  was  done  in  a  passion. 

to  the  composer  ?  What  will  these  questions  furnish  ?  Before  proceeding  to 
write  out  the  matter  they  suggest,  what  is  it  necessary  to  do  ?  What  must  be 
kept  in  view  ?  What  is  essential  in  an  extended  composition,  as  well  as  in  a 
single  sentence  ?  What  is  the  time  for  insuring  sequence  and  unity  of  parts  ?  Aa 
properly  arranged  and  ready  for  the  writer,  give  an  analysis  of  an  Essay  on 
Anger. 


328  Ai^ALYSIS   OF   SUBJECTS. 

III.  Feelings  which  follow  its  induh/ence.  Mortification  ;  humiliation  ;  re- 
gret at  what  may  have  been  done  under  the  influence  of  passion. 
"An  angry  man,"  says  Publius  Hyrus,  "  is  again  angry  with  him- 
self when  he  returns  to  reason."  lie  may  be  likened  to  a  scorpion 
which  stings  itself  as  well  as  others. 

IV.  Historical  Jllustrations.  Cain  and  Abel ;  Alexander  the  Great  and 
Clitus ;  &c. 

V.  Moral  Character  of  Anger.  At  variance  with  the  principles  of 
the  Gospel.  "  Wrath  is  cruel,  and  anger  is  outrageous." — Prov. 
xxvii.,  4. 

VI.    Quotaiiom.     What  do  others  say  of  anger  ? 

A  passionate  man  rides  a  horse  that  runs  away  with  hira. 

Maundcr's  Proverbs, 
Anger  begins  with  folly,  and  ends  with  repentance. — Ibid. 
Rage  is  the  mania  of  the  mind. — Ibid. 
A  passionate  man  scourgeth  himself  with  his  own  scorpions. 

Hafs  Proverbs. 
An  angry  man  opens  his  mouth  and  shuts  his  eyes.— Ca^o. 
Anger  is  certainly  a  kind  of  baseness,  as  it  appears  well  in  the 
weakness  of  those  subjects  in  whom  it  reigns,  children,  old  folks, 
sick  folks. — Lord  Bacon. 

When  passion  enters  at  the  fore-gate,  wisdom  goes  out  at  the 
pos  tern. — Fieldhufs  Proverbs. 
Anger  and  haste  hinder  good  counsel. — Ibid. 
No  man  is  free  who  docs  not  command  himself. — Pythagoras. 
VII.    Effects  of  Anger  on  Society. 

1.  In  individuals,  leads  to  crime,  as  in  the  above  examples.  Makes 
one  enemies,  and  becomes  a  source  of  adversity.  Draw  a  con- 
trast between  a  man  of  placid  temper  and  one  of  hasty  disposi- 
tion. 

2.  In  families  and  communities,  produces  hard  feelings  and  unhap- 
piness. 

3.  In  nations,  causes  war  and  all  its  attendant  evils. 
VIII.    Best  Modes  of  regulating  this  passion. 

IX.  ConclvMon.  Our  own  duty  in  this  respect,  and  what  we  shall 
gain  by  controlling  our  angry  feelings. 

Here,  in  its  proper  form,  is  an  abstract  of  what  the  writer  intends  to 
say.  Of  course,  the  worda  and  formal  divisions  used  above  will  not  ap- 
pear in  his  composition.  They  are  merely  the  means  of  insuring  a  proper 
arrangement  and  exhaustive  examination  of  the  subject.  The  Invention 
is  now  in  a  great  measure  done ;  all  that  remains  is  to  embody  these 
thoughts  in  proper  language,  according  to  the  rules  and  principles  already 
considered  at  length,  and  to  interweave  with  them  such  further  matter  as 
presents  itself.     This  is  called  Amplification,  and  will  be  considered  ia 

In  a  composition  from  this  analygis,  what  will  not  appear?  For  what  «x» 
they  used  ?  What  now  remains  ?  What  is  the  process  called  ?  By  what  most  R 
l)c  followed  ?    Euumcratc  tqc  three  Ptcps  to  be  taken  in  composing.    What  way 


A]VIPLIFICATION.  820 

the  next  lesson.     Followed  by  a  careful  revision,  it  completes  the  process 

of  composing  ;  which  consists,  to  sum  up  our  remarks,  of  three  steps : — 

I.  Roughly  drafting  all  the  thoughts  suggested  by  the  subject. 

II.  Arranging  and  enlarging  these  into  a  formal  Analysis. 

III.  Amplifying  this  Analysis  into  a  composition. 

To  some,  this  threefold  process  may  seem  to  involve  unnecessary 
labor ;  but  experience  proves  that  these  steps  can  all  be  properly  taken, 
and  the  composition  written  in  less  time  than  by  the  common  method  of 
attempting  to  write  without  any  guide  of  the  kind  here  proposed.  It 
will,  at  the  same  time,  be  found  a  far  more  satisfactory  and  interesting 
mode  of  proceeding ;  and  will  result  in  the  production  of  a  more  meri- 
torious composition.  Those  who  are  in  the  habit  of  writing  much,  al- 
most invariably  make  a  preliminary  Analysis  of  their  subject,  no  matter 
what  they  are  about  to  compose.  The  lawyer  always  draws  up  a  brief 
of  his  points  ;  and  the  minister,  a  corresponding  abstract  of  his  sermon. 
It  is  expected,  therefore,  that,  in  every  case,  the  student,  before  attempt- 
ing to  write  his  exercise,  will  draw  up  the  two  Analyses,  as  here  suggested. 


ExEECiSE. — Draw  up  careful  and  exhaustive  Analyses, 
on  the  plan  here  described,  of  the  subjects  Education  and 
Death. 


LESSON    LXVIII. 

AMPLIFICATION. 

.  §  404.  The  analysis  completed,  the  next  step  is  Ampli- 
ncATiON.  This,  as  already  explained,  consists  in  enlarging 
on  the  ideas  before  expressed  under  the  various  heads,  throw- 
ing in  appropriate  additional  matter,  and  forming  a  complete 
and  consistent  whole. 


fome  think  of  this  threefold  process  ?  What  does  experience  prove  with  regard 
to  it  ?  What  is  said  of  those  who  are  in  the  habit  of  writing  ?  What  is  expected 
of  the  student  ? 

§  404.  After  analyzing  the  subject  and  properly  arranging  the  beads,  what  is 


330  AMPtlilOATlOIf. 

The  following  example  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  process  to  which  we 
refer.  A  brief  and  simple  proposition  is  here  made  the  basis  of  several 
successive  amplifications,  in  each  of  which  some  new  fact  or  circumstance 
is  added. 

1.  Alexander  conquered  the  Persians. 

2.  Alexander  the  Great,  the  son  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  conquered  the 
Persians. 

3.  Alexander  the  Great,  the  son  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  being  chosen 
generalissimo  of  the  Greeks,  destroyed  the  empire  of  the  Persians. 

4.  Alexander  the  Great,  the  son  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  being  chosen 
generalissimo  of  the  Greeks,  destroyed  the  empire  of  the  Persians,  the 
inveterate  enemies  of  Greece. 

5.  About  330  years  before  Christ,  Alexander  the  Great,  the  son  of 
Philip  of  Macedon,  being  chosen  generalissimo  of  the  Greeks,  destroyed 
the  empire  of  the  Persians,  the  inveterate  enemies  of  Greece. 

6.  About  830  years  before  Christ,  Alexander  the  Great,  the  son  of 
Philip  of  Macedon,  after  a  long  series  of  splendid  victories,  succeeded  in 
demolishing  the  empire  of  the  Persians,  the  ancient  and  inveterate  ene- 
mies of  Grecian  liberty. 

Analogous  to  such  an  amplification  of  a  simple  proposition,  is  the 
production  of  a  composition  from  an  analysis  like  that  furnished  in  the 
last  lesson.  When  the  writer  passes  from  one  head  to  another,  he  should 
commence  a  new  paragraph ;  that  is,  leaving  blank  the  remainder  of  the 
line  on  which  he  has  been  writing,  he  should  pass  to  the  next,  and  com- 
mence about  an  inch  from  the  left  edge  of  the  page.  This  division  is  im- 
portant. A  distinct  portion  of  a  composition  relating  to  a  particular 
point,  whether  consisting  of  one  sentence  or  of  more,  should  invariably 
constitute  a  distinct  paragraph. 

Of  course,  different  writers,  in  the  expression  of  their  ideas,  will  am- 
plify in  different  ways,  according  to  their  respective  turns  of  mind  and 
the  amount  of  thought  they  bestow  on  the  subject.  Yet  the  general 
principles  stated  below  will  apply  in  a  majority  of  cases,  and  may  be 
found  of  service. 

§  405.  As  regards  the  introduction,  it  must  be  short, 
pointed,  and  appropriate.  On  this  part  of  the  composition 
much  depends,  for  it  is  all-important  that  a  good  impression 
be  made  at  the  outset.  Tlie  reader's  mind,  not  j^et  occupied 
with  facts,  or  fairly  engaged  in  tlie  consideration  of  the  sub- 
ject, is  directed  chiefly  to  the  words  and  constructions  em- 

thenextBtep?  In  what  does  amplification  coneist?  Give  an  example  in  which 
a  simple  proposition  is  made  the  bnpia  of  five  successive  ampliflcation?.  To 
such  an  amplification  what  is  analogous  ?  Wlint  is  the  meaning  of  commencing  a 
neio  paragraph  f    When  should  a  new  paragraph  be  commenced  ? 

f  405.  What  must  bo  the  character  of  Introductions  ?    ^Vhy  is  It  important 


AAIPLIFICATIOK.  331 

ployed;  and,  if  it  finds  ground  for  severe  criticism,  will 
naturally  be  prejudiced  against  the  author  and  his  work. 
If  the  composition  is  to  be  short,  the  introduction  should  be 
brief  in  proportion.  In  some  cases,  a  formal  mtroduction  is 
unnecessary,  and  the  author  at  once  lays  down  the  propo- 
sition he  intends  to  prove,  or  defines  the  subject  of  which  he 
proposes  to  treat.  In  this  case,  the  first  sentence  should  be 
brief,  forcible,  and  striking. 

§  406.  An  effective  introduction  is  frequently  made  by 
commencing  with  a  general  proposition,  proceeding  thence  to 
a  particular  statement,  and  following  this  with  an  individual 
appHcation ;  as  in  the  following  paragraph  from  The  Spectator, 
which  would  be  an  appropriate  introduction  for  an  essay  on 
"  The  Art  of  Music,  as  practised  by  the  Ancient  Hebrews  " : — 

{General  Assertion.)  "Music,  among  those  who  were  styled  the 
chosen  people,  was  a  religious  art.  {Particular  Assertion.)  The  songs  of 
Sion,  which  we  have  reason  to  believe  were  in  high  repute  among  the 
courts  of  the  Eastern  monarchs,  were  nothing  else  but  psalms,  and 
pieces  of  poetry,  that  adored  or  celebrated  the  Supreme  Being.  {Individ- 
ual Assertion.)  The  greatest  conqueror  in  this  holy  nation,  after  the 
manner  of  the  old  Grecian  lyrics,  did  not  only  compose  the  words  of  his 
divine  odes,  but  generally  set  them  to  music  himself ;  after  which,  his 
works,  though  they  were  consecrated  to  the  tabernacle,  became  the  na- 
tional entertainment,  as  well  as  the  devotion,  of  his  people." 

§  407.  The  commonest  and  easiest  introduction,  however, 

is  one  in  which  a  remark  is  made  respecting  the  general  class 

to  which  the  object  under  consideration  belongs  ;  from  which 

remark  there  is  an  easy  transition  to  an  analogous  statement 

respecting  the  particular  case  in  question.     An  example  of 

such  an  introduction  follows : — 

{General  Statement.)  "  Few  institutions  can  contribute  more  to  pre- 
serve civilization,  and  promote  moral  and  intellectual  improvement 
among  all  ranks  of  people,  than  the  establishment  of  public  lectures  in 
every  part  of  the  kingdom,  periodically  repeated  after  a  short  interval. 
{Particular  Statement})    Such  is  the  light  in  which  are  to  be  considered 

that  they  should  be  well  written  ?  To  what  must  the  length  of  the  introduction 
be  proportioned  ?  Instead  of  presenting  a  formal  introduction,  to  what  does  the 
writer  sometimes  proceed?  In  this  case,  what  should  be  the. character  of  tho 
first  sentence  ? 

§  406.  How  is  an  effective  introduction  frequently  made  ?    Give  an  example. 

S  407.  Describe  the  commonest  introduction.  Give  an  example.  Give  the  sub- 


832  AMPLIFICATION. 

the  discourses  appointed  by  the  wisdom  of  the  Church  to  be  everywhere 
held  on  the  recurrence  of  the  seventh  day.  By  these,  the  meanest  and 
most  illiterate  are  enabled  to  hear  moral  and  philosophical  treatises  on 
every  thing  which  concerns  their  several  duties,  without  expense,  and 
without  solicitation." 

An  introduction  of  this  character  would  be  appropriate  to  the  essay 
on  Anger,  analyzed  in  the  last  lesson ;  something,  for  instance,  like  the 
following : — 

Every  passion  in  the  breast  of  man,  when  allowed  to  control  his  ac- 
tion, unrestrained  by  the  conservative  power  of  reason,  is  attended  with 
the  unhappiest  consequences,  both  to  himself  and  the  community  in 
which  he  lives.  If  this  is  true  of  the  passions  in  general,  even  of  tliof^e 
which  are  comparatively  mild  in  their  nature,  how  emphatically  is  it  the 
case  with  Anger,  which,  more  than  all  others,  disdains  the  control  of 
good  sense  and  a  sound  understanding ! 

§  408.  A  happy  allusion  to  some  stor}^,  tradition,  or  his- 
torical fact,  is  among  the  most  pleasing,  and  therefore  suc- 
cessful, introductions  that  can  be  employed.  When  the  cir- 
cumstance to  which  reference  is  made  is  well  known,  the 
mere  allusion  is  sufficient ;  as  when  we  say, "  There  are  some 
to  whose  charity  ties  of  blood  are  the  only  open  sesame.'''* 
The  story  of  "  The  Forty  Thieves ",  in  which  these  words 
occur  as  the  charm  used  in  opening  the  door  of  the  robbers' 
cave,  is  familiar  to  every  one,  and  therefore  an  explanation 
is  unnecessary.  If,  however,  there  is  a  likelihood  that  some 
may  be  ignorant  of  the  subject  alluded  to,  it  is  well  briefly 
to  tell  tlie  story,  and  then  to  apply  it  in  the  case  in  question. 
This  is  gracefully  done  in  the  following  example,  which 
would  be  an  admirable  introduction  for  the  subject,  "  Liberty 
to  be  cherished,  under  whatever  fonn  it  may  appeal-" : — 

"Ariosto  tells  a  pretty  story  of  a  fairy,  who,  by  some  mysterious  law 
of  her  nature,  was  condemned  to  appear  at  certain  seasons  in  the  form 
of  a  foul  and  poisonous  snake.  Those  who  injured  her  during  this  period 
of  her  disguise  were  forever  excluded  from  participation  in  the  blessings 
she  bestowed.  But  to  those,  who,  in  spite  of  her  loathsome  aspect,  pitied 
and  protected  her,  she  afterwards  revealed  herself  in  the  beautiful  and 
celestial  form  which  was  natural  to  her;  accompanied  their  footsteps, 
granted  all  their  wishes,  filled  their  houses  with  wealth,  made  them  hai)py 

stance  or  an  introduction  appropriate  to  tlio  essay  on  Anger  analyzed  in  the  lapt 
lesson. 

§  408.  Wliat  i»  mentioned  as  oiu'  of  the  most  pleasing  introdactionB  ?  In 
whnt  case  is  the  mere  allusion  nufflcient?  ^Vhon  ia  au  explanation  necessary  ? 
Giro  an  example  of  a  happy  introductory  allusion. 


AMPLIFICATION.  333 

in  love,  and  victorious  in  war.  Such  a  spirit  is  Liberty.  At  times  she 
takes  the  form  of  a  hatefiil  reptile.  She  grovels,  she  hisses,  she  stings. 
But  woe  to  those  who  in  disgust  shall  venture  to  crush  her !  And  happy 
are  those,  who,  having  dared  to  receive  her  in  her  degraded  and  frightful 
shape,  shall  at  length  be  rewarded  by  her  in  the  time  of  her  beauty  and 
glory !  " 

§  409.  A  definition  may  be  amplified  by  presenting  the 
meaning  of  the  terra  defined  under  different  forms,  if  there 
is  danger  of  its  being  misunderstood ;  by  stating  any  erro- 
neous impression  respecting  it,  against  which  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  guard ;  or,  negatively,  by  pointing  out  in  what  it 
does  not  consist.  Historical  illustrations  and  quotations 
may  be  multiplied  according  to  the  reading  of  the  student. 
Arguments  for  or  against  a  proposition  may  be  extended  by 
enumerating  the  particular  instances  from  which  the  general 
truth  has  been  deduced,  in  which  case  the  process  is  known 
as  Induction ;  or  by  an  appeal  to  the  statements  of  others, 
which  is  called  the  argument  from  Testimony ;  or  by  refer- 
ring to  what  is  proved  or  acknowledged  to  be  true  in  similar 
cases,  which  is  the  argument  from  Analogy.  Under  the 
head  of  effects,  we  may  extend  our  observations  to  collateral 
consequences  ;  or  contrast  the  subject  under  discussion  with 
its  opposite,  as  regards  the  results  which  follow  from  each. 
The  conclusion,  in  many  cases,  makes  a  practical  application 
of  the  subject ;  which  may  be  diversified  by  appealing  to 
the  conscience,  or  sense  of  right  and  wrong ;  to  the  selfish 
propensities,  on  which  considerations  of  expediency  act ;  to 
the  common  sense,  which  weighs  what  is  said,  and  opens  the 
mind  of  the  candid  inquirer  to  conviction ;  or  to  the  feelings, 
which  awaken  the  sympathy,  and  persuade,  though  they  may 
fail  to  convince. 


§  409.  How  may  a  definition  Tje  amplified  ?  What  is  said  of  historical  illuetra- 
lions  and  quotations  ?  In  what  three  ways  may  arguments  be  extended  ?  Under 
the  head  of  eflfects,  how  may  we  amplify?  What  does  the  conclusion  in  many 
«ases  do  ?    How  may  it  be  diversified  ? 


334       REVISION  AND  CORRECTION   OF   COSIPOSITIONS. 

LESSON   LXIX. 

EETISION   AND   COERECTION   OF   COMPOSITIONS. 

§  41 0.  Mevisioji  of  Compositions. — When  a  composition 
has  been  prepared  according  to  the  suggestions  in  the  last 
two  lessons,  the  next  thing  is  to  revise  it.  Before  this  is 
attempted,  a  short  interval  should  be  allowed  to  elapse,  so 
that  the  writer  may,  in  a  measure,  forget  the  expressions  he 
has  used,  and  criticise  his  work  as  severely  and  impartially 
as  if  it  were  the  production  of  another. 

To  insure  time  for  this  important  examination,  at  least  a  week  should 
be  allowed  for  the  preparation  of  each  exercise ;  the  first  part  of  which 
should  be  appropriated  by  the  student  to  its  composition,  and  the  re- 
mainder to  its  careful  correction.  In  revising,  each  sentence  should  be 
read  aloud  slowly  and  distinctly,  that  the  ear  may  aid  the  eye  in  detect- 
ing faults.  The  principles  laid  down  for  the  promotion  of  Propriety, 
Precision,  Strength,  &c.,  should  be  strictly  followed.  Whatever  violates 
them  must  be  altered,  no  matter  what  the  expense  of  time  or  trouble. 
Even  such  passages  as  seem  doubtful  to  the  writer,  although  he  may  be 
unable  to  detect  in  them  any  positive  error,  it  will  be  safest  to  change. 
The  commonest  faults  are  solecisms,  tautologies,  redundancies,  and  a 
want  of  unity ;  for  the  detection  of  these,  therefore,  the  reviser  should 
be  constantly  on  the  alert.  Ilaving  satisfied  himself  that,  in  these  par- 
ticulars, his  sentences  will  pass  criticism,  he  should  next  seek  to  increase 
their  effect  and  enhance  their  beauty,  by  improving,  polishing,  and  orna- 
menting his  style,  when  this  can  be  done  without  the  appearance  of  af- 
fectation. He  should  insure  that  a  proper  connection  is  maintained  be- 
tween the  parts,  supplying  omitted  matter  that  may  be  essential  to  a 
proper  understanding  of  the  train  of  thought,  and  omitting  whatever  of 
a  foreign  nature  he  may  at  first  inadvertently  have  introduced. 

A  clean  copy  is  now  to  bo  made,  in  doing  which  regard  must  be  had 
to  neatness  of  chirography.  A  careless  habit  of  writing  is  apt  to  lead  to 
a  careless  habit  of  composing,  a  careless  habit  of  study,  and  a  careless 
habit  of  life.  What  is  worth  doing  at  all,  it  has  been  remarked,  is  worth 
doing  well ;  and,  therefore,  though  it  may  seem  to  some  a  trifling  matter, 


S  410.  After  a  compoBitlon  Is  written,  what  la  next  neceBsary  ?  What  ia  said 
with  respect  to  allowinfi;  an  interval  between  the  act  of  composing  and  revising? 
Describe  the  process  of  revision.    lu  making  a  clean  copy,  what  must  be  r«- 


EEVISIOlSr  AND   CORRECTION   OF  COMPOSITIONS.       335 

the  careful  student  will  see  that  his  exercise  is  presented  in  the  neatest 
possible  form.  The  most  convenient  paper,  as  regards  size,  is  the  ordi- 
nary letter  sheet.  A  margin  of  an  inch  and  a  half  should  be  allowed  on 
each  side  for  the  remarks  of  the  teacher.  The  subjiect  should  occupy  a 
line  by  itself,  should  be  equally  distant  from  both  margins,  and  should 
be  written  in  a  larger  hand  than  the  rest.  Attention  must  be  paid  to  the 
spelling  and  punctuation.  When  there  is  not  room  for  the  whole  of  a 
word  at  the  end  of  a  line,  it  must  be  divided  after  one  of  its  syllables, 
and  the  hyphen  must  connect  the  separated  parts  as  directed  in  §  202. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  THE  TEACHER. 

§  411.  Correction  of  Compositions. — ^Most  teachers  have 
their  own  system  of  examining  and  correcting  compositions : 
those  who  have  not,  may  find  the  following  suggestions  of 
service : — 

I.  Read  the  exercises  presented  in  the  presence  of  the  class,  and  in- 
vite criticism  from  all.  The  credits  allowed  should  be  based,  as  well  on 
the  promptitude  and  soundness  of  the  remarks  thus  made,  as  on  the 
merits  of  the  performances  submitted.  It  is  surprising  to  see  how  soon 
this  simple  exercise  develops  a  critical  taste,  and  what  a  salutary  effect 
this  taste  in  turn  produces  on  the  style  of  those  in  whom  it  is  awakened. 
Underline  words  in  which  errors  of  any  kind  occur,  and  require  the 
student  to  correct  them  himself.  ■  Remarks  on  the  style  may  with  ad- 
vantage be  made  by  the  teacher,  and  their  substance  embodied  in  the 
margins  left  for  that  purpose. 

II.  In  certain  Avords,  errors  in  orthography  are  very  common ;  hmi- 
ness  is  apt  to  be  written  buisness  ;  separate,  seperate  ;  believe,  beleive,  &c. 
When  such  errors  occur,  let  the  words  be  spelled  by  the  whole  class  in 
concert.  If,  as  is  often  the  case,  special  difficulty  is  found  in  spelling 
particular  words,  it  is  well  for  the  teacher  to  keep  a  record  of  the  latter, 
and  to  give  them  to  the  class  from  time  to  time  as  a  lesson  in  orthog- 
raphy. 

III.  In  correcting  compositions,  do  not  criticise  so  closely  or  severely 
as  to  discourage  the  pupil ;  but  adapt  your  remarks  to  his  degree  of  ad- 
vancement.    Let  your  corrections,  in  every  case,  be  in  harmony  with  the 

garded  1    Wliat  is  said  of  a  careless  habit  of  writing  ?    What  suggestions  are 
made  with  respect  to  paper,  &c.  ? 


336       REVISION   AND   CORRECTION   OF   COMPOSITIONS. 

scope  and  style  of  the  exercise.  With  beginners,  it  is  well  to  make  no 
other  alterations  than  such  as  are  absolutely  required.  As  the  composer 
advances,  his  performances  may  be  more  closely  criticised,  and  his  atten- 
tion may  be  directed  to  those  nicer  points,  to  which,  at  an  earlier  period, 
it  would  be  injudicious  to  refer. 

IV.  After  a  criticism  by  the  class  and  remarks  by  the  teacher,  the 
student  should  make  the  required  corrections,  and  submit  them  for  ap- 
proval. He  should  then  copy  his  exercise  in  a  book  provided  for  the 
purpose,  a  comparison  of  the  different  parts  of  which  will  at  any  time 
show  what  progress  he  has  made. 

V.  In  correcting,  the  student  will  save  time  and  trouble  by  availing 
himself  of  some  of  the  marks  used  in  the  correction  of  proof,  and  exhib- 
ited on  a  specimen  sheet  at  the  close  of  this  volume. 


EXERCISE  IN  AMPLIFICATION. 

I.  Amplify,  according  to  the  example  in  §  404,  in  five  or 
more  successive  sentences,  each  of  the  following  simple 
propositions : — ■ 

1.  Alfred  the  Great  died. 

2.  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion  engaged  in  one  of  the  Crusades. 

3.  A  storm  wrecked  the  Spanish  Armada. 

4.  Cornwallis  surrendered  at  Yorktown. 

B.  Can  we  doubt  the  immortality  of  the  soul  ? 

II.  According  to  the  example  in  §  406,  construct  an  in- 
troduction asserting, 

^  { Generall}/)  ih&t  a  knowledge  of  music  is  becoming  rapidly  ex- 

tended in  this  country  ;  {Particularly)  that  singing  and  instrumen- 
tal music  are  studied  in  difterent  sections  and  by  all  grades  of 
society ;  and  {IndividuaUi/)  that  almost  every  household  contains 
some  performer.  These  propositions  must  be  amplified,  and  con- 
stitute not  less  than  three  distinct  sentences. 

III.  "Write,  on  the  same  plan,  an  introduction  laying  down 
the  proposition  that  dissimulation  is  one  of  the  promi- 
nent faults  of  the  present  generation. 

IV.  According  to  the  example  in  §  407,  write  introductions 
stating, 


MISCELLANEOUS   EXEECISES.  337 

1.  That  a  virtue  carried  to  an  extreme  becomes  a  fault ;  and  that, 
therefore,  by  those  who  do  not  look  closely  enough  to  discern 
the  line  which  distinguishes  the  two,  they  are  apt  to  be  con- 
founded :  apply  this  in  the  case  of  frugality  and  parsimony. 

2.  The  general  consequence  of  becoming  familiar  with  any  thing, 
and  the  particular  consequence  of  becoming  familiar  with  vice. 

8.  The  fact  that  every  tongue  may  be  regarded  as  an  index  to  the 
pecuUarities  of  the  people  speaking  it,  and  that  this  is  the  case 
with  the  English  language. 


LESSON  LXX. — Exercise  in  Amplification. 
Prepare  an  Essay  on  Anger  from  the  analysis  in  Lesson 

Lxvn. 


LESSON  LXXL — Exercise  in  Amplification. 

"Write  an  Essay  on  Education  from  the  analysis  already 
prepared. 


LESSON  LXXIL — Exercise  on  Plain  and  Figurative  Language. 

Compose  two  sentences  for  each  of  the  following  words, 
one  of  which  shall  contain  it  in  its  literal,  the  other  in  its 
figurative,  signification : — 

EXAMPLES.— Weigh.  [Literal.']  On  toeighing  the  goods  he  had  purchased 
that  morning  at  the  market,  he  found  they  were  deficient  hy  at  least  two  pounds. 

[Figurative.']  After  well  weighing  the  matter  in  his  mind,  he  determined 
upon  pursuing  the  plan  he  had  first  intended. 

BiTTEB.  [Literal.]  Among  the  fruits  we  met  with  in  this  country,  was  a  sort 
of  bitter  apple,  very  disagreeable  to  the  taste. 

[Figurative.]  He  is  now  no  longer  the  gay,  thoughtless,  creature  of  former 
years  ;  his  face  is  furrowed,  his  look  haggard  and  anxious,  and  his  heart  a  prey 
to  the  bitterest  anguish. 

Rest — stand — watch — cover — mask — idle — deep — sleep 
—  monument  —  constellation  —  refulgent  —  overwhelm  — 
sepulchre — response — burn — discover — observation — enter- 
tain —  carnation  —  illuminate  —  eradicate  —  torment  —  laby- 
rinth— emanate — pliable. 
15 


338  MISCELLANEOUS  EXEECISES. 

LESSON  LXXin.— E3tERCiSE  in  Extended  Simile. 
Trace,  at  length,  the  points  of  resemblance  between  the 
given  subjects  that  follow,  carrying  out  the  comparison  as 
in  the  Example : — 

EXAMPLE.— Old  age,  Sunset.  Old  age  has  been  called  tlie  eunset  of  life ;  it 
is  then  that  the  mind,  free  from  the  agitation  and  tumult  of  the  passions,  is  calm 
and  tranquil,  like  the  still  serenity  of  the  evening,  when  the  busy  sound  of  labor 
is  hushed,  and  the  glare  of  the  meridian  sun  has  passed  away.  The  soul  of  the 
just  man,  conscious  of  his  own  integrity,  like  the  glorious  orb  enveloped  in  those 
mellow  tints  which  are  then  reflected  from  it  in  a  thousand  hues,  sinks  into  a 
peaceful  slumber,  again  to  rise  in  brighter  splendor,  and  renew  in  another  world 
the  course  destined  for  it  by  the  Almighty  Ruler  of  the  universe. 

^-[^.  Youth — morning.  2.  I^ife — an  ocean.  3.  e/by  and 
Sorrow — light  and  shade.  4.  Knowledge — a  hill.  5.  Earth 
—  a  mother.  6.  Uncultivated  genius  —  an  unpolished 
diamond.  7.  Neglected  talent  —  a  flower  in  the  desert. 
8.  Death  of  a  c/i^7c^blighting  of  a  blossom.  9.  Charity 
diffusing  its  blessings — the  sun  imparting  light  and  heat. 
10.  Honor  appearing  through  a  mean  habit  —  the  sun 
breaking  through  clouds. 

LESSON   LXXIV.— Exercise  in  Extended  Simile. 

Select  natural  objects  to  which  the  following  abstract 
qualities  may  be  compared,  and  carry  out  the  simile  as  in  the 
Example  in  the  last  Lesson : — 

Adversity.  Ambition.  Peace.  Death. 

Prosperity.  Ignorance.  War.  Memory. 

Melancholy.  Calumny.  Sin.  Justice. 


LESSON  LXXV.— Exercise  in  Metaphorical  Language. 

Compose  sentences  containing  the  following  words  used, 

metaphorically,  in  the  sense  of  the  words  placed  after  them 

in  italics : — 

EXAMPLE.— Path,  Career.  Notwithstanding  all  the  temptations  held  out 
to  him,  he  resolutely  pursued  i\iQ  path  of  integrity,  untouched  alike  by  the  follies 
and  licentiousness  of  a  corrupt  court. 

1.  Crown— glorg.  2.  Bregs—vice.  3.  Cloak— covering. 
4.  Yoke— power.  5.  Abyss  — ruiti.  G.  Spring  —  source. 
7.  Fruits— residts,    8.  Curh— restraint,    9.  Blow-afflietio?!, 


MISCELLANEOUS   EIEECISES.  339 

10.  Rod — tyranny.  11.  Veil — conceal,  12.  Paint — describe, 
13.  Blush — become  red.  14.  Drink — absorb.  15.  Seal — 
close.  16.  Dance  —  move  gracefully.  17.  Steal  —  move 
silently.  18.  Frown  upon — testify  disapprobation  of.  19. 
Fly — move  swiftly.     20.  Scum — unworthy  portiofi. 


LESSON  LXXVI.— Exercise  in  Allegory. 

Two  examples  of  Allegory,  extracted  from  The  Spectator, 
are  presented  below.  The  one  is  an  apologue,  or  fable, 
which,  to  convey  a  great  moral  truth,  represents  the  lower 
animals  as  possessing  reason,  and  inanimate  objects  as  en- 
dowed with  life  and  intelligence ;  the  second  is  an  allegory 
proper,  wliich,  with  the  same  end  in  view,  personifies  the 
abstract  qualities.  Imitate  the  latter  model  in  alifegories 
representing, 

I.  Truth  and  Falsehood. 

II.  Diligence  and  Idleness. 

III.  Modesty  and  Assurance. 

IV.  Man,  a  voyager,  addressed  on  the  one  hand  by  Pleasure,  on  thd 
other  by  Virtue. 

THE   complaining   DROP. 

"A  drop  of  water  fell  out  of  a  cloud  into  the  sea ;  and,  finding  Itself  lost  in 
such  an  immensity  of  fluid  matter,  broke  out  into  the  following  reflection:— 
'  Alas  1  what  an  inconsiderable  creature  am  I  in  this  prodigious  ocean  of  waters  I 
My  existence  is  of  no  concern  to  the  universe ;  I  am  reduced  to  a  kind  of  noth- 
ing, and  am  less  than  the  least  of  the  works  of  God.'  It  so  happened  that  an 
oyster,  which  lay  in  the  neighborhood  of  this  drop,  chanced  to  gape  and  swallow 
it  up  in  the  midst  of  this  its  humble  soliloquy.  The  drop  lay  a  great  while  hard- 
ening in  the  shell,  until  by  degrees  it  was  ripened  into  a  pearl ;  which,  falling 
into  the  hands  of  a  diver,  after  a  long  series  of  adventures,  is  at  present  that 
famous  pearl  which  is  fixed  on  the  top  of  the  Persian  diadem." 

THE   PALACE   OP   VANITY. 

{From  an  Allegory  entitled  "  The  Paradise  of  Fools  ".) 
"  At  last  we  approached  a  bower,  at  the  entrance  of  which  Error  was  seated. 
The  trees  were  thick  woven,  and  the  place  where  he  sat  artfully  contrived  to 
darken  him  a  little.  He  was  disguised  in  a  whitish  robe,  which  he  had  put  on 
that  he  might  appear  to  us  with  a  nearer  resemblance  to  Truth ;  and  as  she  has  a 
light  whereby  she  manifests  the  beauties  of  nature  to  the  eyes  of  her  adorers,  so 
he  had  provided  himself  with  a  magical  wand,  that  he  might  do  something  in 
imitation  of  it,  and  please  with  delusions.  This  he  lifted  solemnly,  and,  mutter- 
ing to  himself,  bid  the  glories  which  he  kept  under  enchantment  to  appear  be 


340  MISCELLANEOUS   EXERCISES. 

fore  us.  Immediately  wc  cast  our  eyes  on  that  part  of  the  sky  to  which  he  pointed, 
and  observed  a  thin  blue  prospect ;  wliich  cleared  as  mountains  in  a  summer  morn- 
ing when  the  mist  goes  off,  and  the  palace  of  Vanity  appeared  to  sight.  ***** 
"Attlie  gate,  the  travellers  neither  met  with  a  porter,  nor  waited  till  one 
should  appear ;  every  one  thought  his  merits  a  sufficient  passport,  and  pressed 
forward.  In  the  hall  we  met  with  several  phantoms,  that  roved  amongst  us  and 
ranged  the  company  according  to  their  sentiments.  There  was  decreasing 
Honor,  that  had  nothing  to  show  but  an  old  coat  of  his  ancestor's  achievements. 
There  was  Ostentation,  that  made  himself  his  own  constant  subject;  and 
Gallantry,  strutting  upon  his  tiptoes.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  hall  stood  a 
throne,  whose  canopy  glittered  with  all  the  riches  that  gayety  could  contrivw 
to  lavish  on  it ;  and  between  the  gilded  arms  sat  Vanity,  decked  in  the  pea- 
cock's feathers,  and  acknowledged  for  another  Venus  by  her  votaries.  The  boy 
who  stood  beside  her  for  a  Cupid,  and  who  made  the  world  to  bow  before  her, 
was  called  Self-Conceit.  Hia  eyes  had  every  now  and  then  a  cast  inwards,  to  the 
neglect  of  all  objects  about  him  ;  and  the  arms  which  he  made  use  of  for  con- 
quest, were  borrowed  from  those  against  whom  he  had  a  design.  The  arrow 
which  he  sliot  at  the  soldier  was  fledged  from  his  own  plume  of  feathers ;  the 
dart  he  directed  against  the  man  of  wit,  was  winged  from  the  quills  he  writ 
with ;  and  that  which  he  sent  against  those  who  presumed  upon  their  riches, 
was  headed  with  gold  out  of  their  treasuries.  He  made  nets  for  statesmen  from 
their  own  contrivances ;  he  took  fire  from  the  eyes  of  the  ladies  with  which  he 
melted  their  hearts  ;  and  lightning  from  the  tongues  of  the  eloquent,  to  inflame 
them  with  their  own  glories.  At  the  foot  of  the  throne  sat  three  false  Graces ; 
Flattery  with  a  shell  of  paint.  Affectation  with  a  mirror  to  practise  at,  and 
Fashion  ever  changing  the  posture  of  her  clothes.  These  applied  themselves  to 
secure  the  conquests  which  Self-Conceit  had  gotten,  and  had  each  of  them  their 
particular  polities.  Flattery  gave  new  colors  and  complexions  to  all  thinirs  ;  Af- 
fectation, new  airs  and  appearances,  which,  as  she  said,  were  not  vulgar ;  and  Fash- 
ion both  concealed  some  home  defects,  and  added  some  foreign  external  beauMes." 


LESSON  LXXVII.— Exercise  in  Hyperbole. 
Represent  the  following  subjects  by  Hyperbole  : — 

Example.— ^1»  impressive  speech.  His  speech  was  so  deeply  interesting  and 
impressive,  that  the  very  walls  listened  to  his  arguments,  and  were  moved  by  hla 
tdoquence. 

1.  The  brightness  of  a  lighted  room. 

2.  The  splendor  of  a  dress  ornamented  with  jewels. 
8.  Tlie  number  of  persons  in  a  crowd. 

4.  The  quantity  of  rain  which  has  fallen  in  a  shower. 

T).  The  thirst  of  an  individual  (by  the  quantity  of  liquid  he  consumes). 

G.  The  size  of  a  country  (by  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun). 

7.  The  affliction  caused  by  the  death  of  a  distinguished  individual. 

8.  The  depth  of  a  precipice. 

9.  The  waves  of  the  ocean  in  a  storm. 

10.  The  heat  of  a  summer  day. 

11.  The  refreshing  effects  of  a  shower. 

12.  The  excitement  of  city  life. 
18.  The  darkness  of  night. 

14.  The  selfishness  of  a  miser. 
16.  Vegetation  in  the  torrid  zone. 


MISCELLANEOUS    EXEECISES.  841 

LESSON   LXXVIII. — Exercises  in  Vision  and  Apostrophe. 

I.  Employ  Vision  in  brief  descriptions  of  the  foUo^anp^ 
scenes : — 

I.  A  Battle-scene.  III.  An  Earthquake. 

II.  A  Storm  at  Sea.  IV.  A  Thunder-storm.    . 
II.  Alter  the  following  passages,  so  that  they  may  con- 
tain examples  of  Apostrophe : — 

1.  I  can  not  but  imagine  tliat  the  virtuous  heroes,  legislators,  and  patriots  of 
every  age  and  country,  are  bending  from  their  elevated  seats  to  witness  this  con- 
test, as  if  they  were  incapable,  till  it  be  brought  to  a  favorable  issue,  of  enjoying 
their  eternal  repose.  Let  these  illustrious  immortals  enjoy  that  repose  I  Their 
mantle  fell  when  they  ascended ;  and  thousands,  inflamed  with  their  spirit,  and 
impatient  to  tread  in  their  steps,  are  ready  to  swear  by  Him  that  sitteth  upon 
the  throne  and  liveth  for  ever  and  ever,  that  they  will  protect  Freedom  in  her 
last  asylum,  and  never  desert  that  cause,  which  they  sustained  by  their  labors, 
and  cemented  with  their  blood. 

2.  Thus  passes  the  world  away.  Throughout  all  ranks  and  conditions,  "  one 
generation  passeth,  and  anotlier  generation  cometh";  and  this  great  inn  is  by 
turns  evacuated  and  replenished  by  troops  of  succeeding  pilgrims.  The  world 
is  vain  and  inconstant.  Life  is  fleeting  and  transient.  When  will  the  sons  of 
men  leara  to  think  of  it  as  they  ought  ?  When  will  they  learn  humanity  front 
the  afflictions  of  their  brethren;  or  moderation  and  wisdom  from  the  sense  of 
their  own  fugitive  state  ? 


LESSON  LXXIX. — Exercise  in  Personification. 

I.  Introduce  into  sentences  the  following  expressions 
illustrative  of  Personification  : — 

Sleep  embraces — Nature  speaks — The  evening  invites — The  moon 
gilds — The  morning  smiles — The  sun  climbs — Care  keeps  watch — ■ 
Night  spreads — Vengeance  bares  his  arm — Time  has  tamed — Years  had 
ploughed — Britain  saw — Death  prepared  his  dart — Memory  wept — Free- 
dom shrieked — Rapine  prowls — Murder  stalks — The  vessel  cleaves — 
Wisdom  strays — Hope  fled — Love  watches. 

II.  Write  sentences  containing  the  following  subjects 
personified : — 

'ExAMVhv^.—Contentimnt.  If  Contentment,  the  parent  of  Felicity,  and  the 
faithful  companion  of  Hope,  would  whisper  her  consolations  in  our  ears,  in  vaiu 
might  Fortune  wreck  us  on  inhospitable  shores. 

Eternitt.  Pity.  Charity.  Folly. 

Idleness.  Hope.  Disease.  Peace. 

The  Grate.  Faith.  Mirth.  Light. 


342  MISOELLAlfEOUS    EXERCISES. 

LESSON  LXXX. — Exercises  in  Climax  and  Antithesis. 

I.  In  each  of  the  following  passages,  arrange  the  parts 
so  as  to  form  a  Climax : — 

Example.— /w3!>«)p€r/y  arranged.  What  a  piece  of  work  is  man  1  in  action 
liow  like  an  angel  1  how  noble  in  reason  I  in  apprehension  how  like  a  god  I  how 
infinite  in  faculties  I  in  form  and  motion  how  expressive  and  admirable  ! 

Arranged  in  tin  form  of  a  Climax.  What  a  piece  of  work  is  man  I  how  noblo 
in  reason  I  how  infinite  in  faculties !  in  form  and  motion  how  expressive  and 
admirable  1  in  action  how  like  an  angel  1  in  apprehension  how  like  a  god  1 

1.  Nothing  can  be  more  worthy  of  us  than  to  contribute  to  the  hap- 
piness of  those  who  have  been  once  useful  and  are  still  willing  to  be  so ; 
to  be  a  statf  to  their  declining  days  ;  to  make  the  winter  of  old  age  wear 
the  aspect  of  spring ;  to  prevent  them  from  feeling  the  want  of  such 
pleasures  as  they  are  able  to  enjoy  ;  and  to  smooth  the  furrows  in  their 
laded  cheeks. 

2.  The  history  of  every  succeeding  generation  is  this.  New  objects 
attract  the  attention ;  new  intrigues  engage  the  passions  of  man  ;  new 
actors  come  forth  on  the  stage  of  the  world  ;  a  new  world,  in  short,  in 
the  course  of  a  few  years,  has  gradually  and  insensibly  risen  around  us  ; 
new  ministers  fill  the  temples  of  religion ;  new  members,  the  seats  of 
justice. 

3.  It  is  pleasant  to  command  our  appetites  and  passions,  and  to  keep 
them  in  due  order,  within  the  bounds  of  reason  and  religion,  because 
that  is  empire ;  it  is  pleasant  to  mortify  and  subdue  our  lusts,  because 
that  is  victory ;  it  is  pleasant  to  be  virtuous  and  good,  because  that  is 
to  excel  many  others ;  it  is  pleasant  to  grow  better,  because  that  is  to 
excel  ourselves. 

II. — Represent  the  following  subjects  in  Antithesis,  re- 
membering the  principle  stated  in  §  374: — 

Example.—^  Wise  Man  and  a  Fool.  A  wise  man  endeavors  to  shine  in  him- 
self; a  fool,  to  outshine  others.  The  former  is  humbled  by  the  sense  of  his  own 
Infirmities  ;  the  latter  is  lifted  up  by  the  discovery  of  those  which  he  observes  iu 
others.  The  wise  man  considers  Mhat  he  wants  ;  the  fool,  what  he  abounds  in. 
The  wise  man  is  happy  when  he  gains  his  own  approbation ;  and  the  fool,  when 
6c  recommends  himself  to  the  applause  of  those  about  him. 

Summer  and  Winter.  Pride  and  Humility. 

Modesty  and  Prudery.  Moderation  and  Intemperance. 

Gratitude  and  Ingratitude.  Peace  and  War. 

Morality  and  Religion.  Discretion  and  Cunning. 

Knowledge  and  Ignorance.  Cheerfulness  and  Melancholy. 

Geography  and  History.  Spring  and  Autumn. 


LESSON  LXXXI.— Parallels. 
A  Parallel  is  a  comparison  showing  the  points  of  simili- 


MISCELLANEOUS   EXERCISES.  343 

tude  and  dijBFerence  between  two  persons,  characters,  or  ob- 
jects, that  resemble  each  other  either  in  appearance  or  in 
reaUty.  In  this  variety  of  composition,  individual  peculiari- 
ties are  often  contrasted  by  means  of  Antitheses  with  fine 
effect.  From  Dr.  Johnson's  Life  of  Pope,  we  extract  the 
following  fine  specimen  of  the  Parallel : — 

DRYDEN   AND   POPE. 

"  In  acquired  knowledge,  the  superiority  must  bo  allowed  to  Drydeu,  wliosiJ 
education  was  more  scholastic,  and  who,  before  he  became  an  author,  had  been 
allowed  more  time  for  study,  with  better  means  of  information.  His  mind  has  a 
larger  range,  and  l»e  collects  his  images  and  illustrations  from  a  more  extensive 
circumference  of  science.  Dryden  knew  more  of  man  in  his  general  nature,  and 
Pope  in  his  local  manners.  The  notions  of  Dryden  were  formed  by  comprehen- 
sive speculation,  and  those  of  Pope  by  minute  attention.  There  is  more  dignity 
in  the  knowledge  of  Diyden,  and  more  certainty  in  that  of  Pope.  Poetry  was 
not  the  sole  praise  of  either,  for  both  excelled  likewise  in  prose;  but  Pope  did 
not  borrow  his  prose  from  his  predecessor.  The  style  of  Dryden  is  capricious 
and  varied ;  that  of  Pope  is  cautious  and  uniform.  Dryden  obeys  the  motions  of 
his  own  mind ;  Pope  constrains  his  mind  to  his  own  rules  of  composition.  Dry- 
den is  sometimes  vehement  and  rapid ;  Pope  is  always  smooth,  uniform,  and 
gentle.  Dryden's  page  is  a  natural  field,  rising  into  inequalities,  and  diversified 
by  the  varied  exuberance  of  abimdant  vegetation ;  Pope's  is  a  velvet  lawn,  shaven 
by  the  scythe,  and  levelled  by  the  roller. 

"  Of  genius,— that  power  which  constitutes  a  poet ;  that  quality  without  which 
judgment  is  cold,  and  knowledge  is  inert ;  that  energy  which  collects,  combines, 
amplifies,  and  animates ;— the  superiority  must,  with  some  hesitation,  be  allowed 
to  Dryden.  It  is  not  to  be  inferred,  that  of  this  poetical  vigor  Pope  had  only  a 
little,  because  Diyden  had  more  ;  for  every  other  writer,  siuce  Milton,  must  give 
place  to  Pope  :  and  even  of  Dryden  it  must  be  said,  that  if  he  has  brighter  par- 
agraphs, he  has  not  better  poems.  Dryden's  performances  were  always  hasty, 
either  excited  by  some  external  occasion,  or  extorted  by  domestic  necessity ;  he 
composed  without  consideration,  and  published  without  correction.  What  his 
mind  could  supply  at  call,  or  gather  in  one  excursion,  was  all  that  he  sought,  and 
all  that  he  gave.  The  dilatoi-y  caution  of  Pope  enabled  him  to  condense  his  sen- 
timents, to  multiply  his  images,  and  to  accumulate  all  that  study  might  produce, 
or  chance  might  supply.  If  the  flights  of  Dryden,  therefore,  are  higher.  Pope 
continues  longer  on  the  wing.  If  of  Dryden's  fire  the  blaze  is  brighter,  of 
Pope's  the  heat  is  more  regular  and  constant.  Dryden  often  surpasses  expec- 
tation, and  Pope  never  falls  below  it.  Dryden  is  read  with  frequent  astonish- 
ment, and  Pope  with  perpetual  delight." 

Draw  Parallels,  in  the  style  of  the  example  just  given, 

between, 

1.  Napoleon  and  Washington. 

2.  Lafayette  and  Howard. 


LESSON  LXXXIL— Exercise  in  Parallels. 
Draw  Parallels  between. 


34:4  MISCELLANEOUS   EXERCISES. 

1.  Queen  Elizabeth  and  Queen  Victoria. 

2.  The  United  States  and  England. 


LESSON  LXXXIII.— Exercise  in  Parallels. 

Draw  Parallels  between, 

1.  The  Torrid  and  the  Temperate  Zone. 

2.  The  European  and  the  Oriental. 

3.  The  Eloquence  of  the  Bar  and  that  of  the  Pulpit 

4.  A  Plain  and  a  Florid  Style. 


LESSON  LXXXIV.— Exercise  in  Defining  Synontmes. 

Analogous  to  the  drawing  of  Parallels  is  the  defining  of 
the  shades  of  difference  between  synonymous  terms,  models 
of  which  will  be  found  on  pp.  280,  281.  In  a  similar  man- 
ner, show  the  distinction  between  the  following  synonymes, 
and  illustrate  their  use  in  different  sentences : — 

1.  Invention,  Discovery.  5.  Wit,  Humor. 

2.  Genius,  Talent.  C.  Poison,  Venom. 

3.  Pride,  Vanity.  7.  Peaceful,  Peaceable. 

.  4.  Handsome,  Pretty.  8.  Continuation,  Continuance. 


LESSON  LXXXV.— Exercise  in  Defining  Synonymes. 

Show  the  difference  between  the  following  synonymous 
terms : — 

1.  Associate,  Companion.  2.  Idle,  Lazy,  Indolent.  8.  Great,  Large, 
Big.  4.  Sick,  Sickly,  Diseased.  5.  Contemptible,  Despicable,  Pitiful. 
6.  Right,  Clnim,  Privilege.  1.  Disregard,  Slight,  Neglect.  8.  Anecdote, 
Tale,  Story,  Novel,  Romance. 


LESSON  LXXXVL— Exercise  in  Paraphrasing. 

A  Paraphrase  is  the  amplified  explanation  of  a  passage 
in  clearer  terms  than  those  employed  by  its  author.  Para- 
phrases frequently  occur  in  versions  from  foreign  languages ; 
when,  instead  of  a  literal  translation  of  the  original  text,  the 


Miscellaneous  exercises.  345 

substance  is  given  in  an  amplified  form  and  in  a  style  which 
is  regarded  as  more  intelligible. 

Maxims,  Aphorisms,  Proverbs,  and  Saws,  are  often  para- 
phrased. A  Maxim  is  a  proposition  briefly  expressed,  which 
teaches  a  moral  truth  and  is  susceptible  of  practical  applica- 
tion. An  Aphorism  (which  corresponds  with  the  Apoph- 
thegm of  the  ancients)  is  a  speculative  rather  than  a  practical 
proposition,  embodying  a  doctrine  or  the  principles  of  a 
science.  A  Proverb,  or  Saying,  (the  Adage  of  the  ancients) 
is  a  terse  proposition  current  among  all  classes,  relating  to 
matters  of  worldly  wisdom  as  well  as  moral  truth.  A  Saw 
is  a  vulgar  proverb.  The  following  examples  will  show  the 
difference  between  them : — 

Maxim. — Forgiveness  is  the  noblest  revenge. 

Aphorism, — Originality  in  Art  is  the  individualizing  of  the  universal. 

Proverb. — A  word  to  the  wise  is  sufficient. 

Saw. — A  nod  is  as  good  as  a  wink  to  a  blind  horse. 

Paraphrase  the  following  Maxims,  Proverbs,  &c. : — 

^XKmvLE.— Wealth  begets  tcanf. 

Paraphrase.— The  desires  of  man  increase  with  his  acquisitions.  Every  step 
that  he  advances,  brings  something  within  his  view,  which  he  did  not  see  before, 
and  which,  as  soon  as  he  sees  it,  he  begins  to  want.  When  necessity  ends,  curi- 
osity begins ;  and  no  sooner  are  we  supplied  with  every  thing  that  nature  can 
demand,  than  we  sit  down  to  contrive  artificial  appetites. 

1.  Either  never  attempt,  or  persevere  to  the  end. 

2.  Poor  and  content  is  rich,  and  rich  enough. 

3.  Good  news  docth  good  like  medicine. 

4.  No  pains,  no  gains. 

5.  Fear  is  the  mark  of  a  mean  spirit. 

6.  One  swallow  does  not  make  a  summer. 

7.  Nothing  venture,  nothing  have. 

8.  Between  two  stools  one  comes  to  the  ground. 

9.  One  good  turn  deserves  another. 

10.  Money  makes  the  mare  go. 

11.  It  never  rains  but  it  pours. 

12.  Penny  wise,  pound  foolish. 


LESSON  LXXXVII.— Exercise  in  pARAPtoASiNa. 
Paraphrase  the  following  passages : — 

I.  Make  no  man  your  idol,  for  the  best  man  must  have  faults ;  and  his  faults 
Trill  insensibly  become  yours,  in  addition  to  your  own. 


346  M16CELLAKE0US   EXERCISES. 

2.  He  that  argues  for  victory  is  but  a  gambler  in  words,  Becking  to  enrich 
himself  by  another's  loss. 

3.  Distress  and  difllculty  are  known  to  operate  in  private  life  as  the  spurs  of 
diligence. 

4.  The  love  of  gain  never  made  a  painter ;  but  it  has  marred  many. 

5.  Complaints  and  murmurs  are  often  loudest  and  most  frequent  among  those 
who  possess  all  the  external  means  of  temporal  enjoyment. 

6.  The  want  of  employment  is  one  of  the  most  frequent  causes  of  vice. 

7.  A  wound  from  a  tongue  is  worse  tlian  a  wound  from  the  sword :  for  the 
latter  affects  only  the  body ;  the  former,  the  soul. 

8.  Trust  him  little  who  praises  all ;  him  less,  who  censures  all ;  and  him  least, 
who  is  indifferent  about  all. 

9.  He  that  finds  truth,  without  loving  her,  is  like  a  bat ;  which,  though  it  hath 
eyes  to  discern  that  there  is  a  sun,  yet  hath  so  evil  eyes  that  it  can  not  delight  in 
the  sun. 

10.  They  who  have  never  known  prosperity,  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  unhappy ; 
it  is  from  the  remembrance  of  joys  we  have  lost,  that  the  arrows  of  affliction  are 
pointed. 

11.  Every  man  has  just  as  much  vanity  as  he  wants  understanding. 

12.  The  strongest  passions  allow  us  some  rest,  but  vanity  keeps  us  in  perpet- 
ual motion.  "  What  a  dust  do  I  raise  I "  says  the  fly  upon  a  coach-wheel.  *•  At 
what  a  rate  do  I  drive  1 "  says  the  fly  upon  the  horse's  ba(^ 


LESSON  LXXXVIII.— Exercise  ik  Abridging. 

Abridging  (sometimes  called  Epitomizing)  is  the  opposite 
of  Amplification,  and  consists  in  expressing  the  substance 
of  a  passage,  article,  or  volmne,  in  fewer  words. 

Example.— Tradition  says,  that  Foo-tsze,  the  Chinese  philosopher,  was  in  his 
youth  of  so  impatient  a  temper,  that  he  could  not  endure  the  drudgery  of  leani- 
ing,  and  determined  to  give  up  literary  pursuits  for  some  manual  employment. 
One  day,  as  he  was  returning  home  with  a  full  determination  to  go  to  school  no 
longer,  he  happened  to  pass  by  a  half-witted  old  woman,  who  was  rubbing  a  small 
bar  of  iron  on  a  whetstone.  When  the  young  student  asked  her  the  reason  of 
this  strange  employment,  she  replied,  "Why,  sir,  I  have  lost  my  knitting-needle, 
and  just  thought  I  would  rub  down  this  bar  to  make  me  another."  The  words 
acted  like  magic  on  the  young  philosopher,  who  returned  to  his  books  with  ten- 
fold diligence ;  and,  whenever  ho  felt  impatient  and  despondent,  would  say  to 
himself,  "If  a  half-witted  old  woman  has  resolution  enough  to  mb  down  a  bar 
of  iron  into  a  needle.  It  would  be  ^disgraceful  in  me  to  have  less  perseverance, 
when  the  highest  honors  of  the  empire  are  before  me."  He  lived  to  see  the  Jii.< 
tice  of  these  reflections.  His  acquirements,  in  process  of  time,  made  his  name  ;i 
proverb,  and  procured  for  him  those  very  honors,  which,  but  for  this  fortunate 
incident,  he  would  have  thrown  away,  and  which  without  exertion  none  can 
hope  to  attain. 

Abridged.— Foo-tBze,  the  Chinese  philosopher,  was  possessed  of  bo  little  dili- 
gence in  his  youth  that  he  determined  to  abandon  literary  pursuits.  Returning 
from  school  with  the  resolution  of  at  once  seeking  some  manual  employment,  ho 
observed  a  half-witted  old  woman  nibbing  a  bar  of  iron  on  a  whetatone.    Asking 


MiSCELLANEOtJS   EXERCISES.  34^ 

the  reason  of  this  strange  proceeding,  he  learned  from  her  that  she  had  lost  her 
knitting-needle  and  was  endeavoring  to  make  another  hy  rubhing  down  the  bar. 
The  words  acted  like  magic  on  the  young  philosopher.  "  Shall  an  old  woman," 
he  said  to  himself,  "have  more  resolution  and  perseverance  than  I,  within  whose 
reach  are  the  highest  honors  of  the  empire  ?  "  Inspired  with  new  vigor,  he  re- 
turned to  his  books ;  his  good  resolutions  were  kept ;  and  history  still  names 
him  as  among  the  wisest  of  philosophers. 


LESSON  LXXXIX.— Exercise  in  Abridging. 

Abridge,  and  present  in  your  own  words,  the  matter  con- 
tained in  Lesson  XXXIX.  of  this  volume,  on  "The  Sub- 
lime". 


LESSON  XC. — Exercise  in  Abridging. 

Abridge,  and  present  in  your  own  words,  the  matter  con- 
tained in  Lesson  LXYL,  on  Criticism. 


LESSON  XCL— Exercise  in  Criticism. 

In  the  style  of  the  Examples  presented  in  Lesson 
LXVI.,  write  a  criticism  on  the  Allegory  entitled  "The 
Palace  of  Vanity  ",  quoted  in  Lesson  LXXVT. 


LESSON  XCIL— Exercise  in  Criticism. 

Questions  on  the  Remarks  in  the  Preceding  Lessons. — What  is  an 
apologue,  or  fable  ?  What  is  an  allegory  proper  ?  What  is  a  parallel  ? 
What  figure  is  used  with  advantage  in  parallels  ?  What  is  a  para- 
phrase ?  In  what  do  paraphrases  frequently  occur  ?  What  are  often 
paraphrased  ?  What  is  a  maxim  ?  What  is  an  aphorism  ?  What  was 
it  called  by  the  ancients  ?  What  is  a  proverb  ?  What  is  a  saw  ?  Give 
examples  of  each.  What  is  meant  by  abridging  ?  What  other  name  is 
sometimes  given  to  this  process  ? 

Write  a  criticism  on  Dr.  Johnson's  Parallel  between  Dry- 
den  and  Pope,  quoted  in  Lesson  LXXXI. 


348  DESCRIPTION   OF   MATERIAL   OBJECTS. 

LESSON  XCIII. 

DESCRIPTION   OF   MATERIAL   OBJECTS. 

§  412.  Composition  is  the  art  of  inventing  ideas  and  ex- 
pressing them  by  means  of  written  language. 

A  Composition  is  a  written  production  on  any  subject, 
and  of  any  length  or  style. 

§  413.  There  are  two  great  divisions  under  which  all 
compositions  may  be  classed, — Prose  and  Poetry. 

Those  compositions  are  embraced  under  the  head  of  Prose, 
in  which  a  natural  order  and  mode  of  expression  are  em- 
ployed, without  reference  to  an  exact  arrangement  of  sylla- 
bles or  the  recurrence  of  certain  sounds. 

Poetry  embraces  such  compositions  as  are  characterized 
by  a  departure  from  the  natural  order  and  mode  of  expres- 
sion ;  or,  by  an  exact  arrangement  of  syllables  or  the  recur- 
rence of  certain  sounds. 

§  414.  The  parts  of  composition,  whether  Prose  or  Poetr}% 
are  five ;  Description,  Narration,  Argument,  Exposition,  and 
Speculation.  Either  of  these  may  separately  constitute  the 
bulk  of  a  written  jiroduction ;  or,  they  may  all,  as  is  frequent- 
ly the  case,  enter,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  into  the  same 
composition. 

§  415.  Description  consists  in  delineating  the  character- 
istics of  any  object  by  means  of  words.  It  fonns  an  impor- 
tant part  of  almost  every  variety  of  composition ;  and  allows 
the  widest  scope  for  ornament  and  beauty  of  language.  The 
style  used  in  description  should  correspond  with  the  charac- 
ter pf  the  object  treated.    If  the  latter  is  grand,  the  language 


§  412.  What  is  compositiou  ?    What  is  meant  by  a  composition  f 

§  413.  Wliat  are  the  two  great  divisions  under  which  all  compositions  are 
classed  ?    Which  are  embraced  under  the  head  of  Prose  ?    Which,  under  Poetry  ? 

§  414.  Enumerate  the  parts  which  enter,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  into  dif- 
ferent compositions. 

§  415.  In  what  docs  description  conBist  7    For  what  docs  it  allow  wide  scope  ? 


DESCRIPTION   OF  MATERIAL   OBJECTS.  340 

in  which  it  is  described  should  be  elevated  in  proportion.  If 
beauty  is  the  leading  characteristic  of  the  one,  it  should  dis- 
tinguish the  other  also.  Whatever  the  nature  of  the  object 
described,  the  style,  to  be  effective,  should  be  adapted  to 
it,  according  to  the  principle  stated  under  the  head  of  Har- 
mony. 

Writers  are  most  frequently  called  on  to  describe  material 
objects,  natural  scenery,  and  persons. 

§  416.  In  the  description  of  material  objects,  such  heads 
as  the  following  will  generally  be  found  appropriate ;  and, 
in  drawing  up  an  analysis  for  any  particular  subject,  a  selec- 
tion may  be  made  from  them,  and  such  new  divisions  intro- 
duced as  are  suggested  :-^ 

I.  The  place  where,  and  the  circumstances  under  which,  the  object 
was  seen ;  the  time  when  it  was  made,  invented,  or  discovered ; 
the  changes  which  time  may  have  produced  in  it. 
II.  Its  history  ;  traditions  or  reminiscences  connected  with  it. 

III.  The  materials  of  which,  and  the  persons  by  whom,  it  was  made. 

IV.  Its  form,  size,  and  general  appearance. 
V.  Comparison  of  it  with  any  similar  object. 

VI.  The  feelings  excited  by  beholding  it. 
VII.  The  purpose  for  which  it  was  designed. 
VIII.  The  effects  it  has  produced. 

§  417.  As  a  specimen  of  this  kind  of  description,  we  ex- 
tract from  Forsyth's  "  Remarks  on  Antiquities,  Arts,  and 
Letters  "  a  passage  on 

THE   COLISEUM. 

A  colossal  taste  gave  rise  to  the  Coliseum.  Here,  indeed,  gigantic  dimensiona 
were  necessary ;  for,  though  hundreds  could  enter  at  once,  and  fifty  thousand 
find  seats,  the  space  was  still  insufficient  for  Rome,  and  the  crowd  for  the  morn- 
ing games  began  at  midnight.  Vespasian  and  Titus,  as  if  presaging  their  own 
deaths,  hurried  the  building,  and  left  several  marks  of  their  precipitancy  behind. 
In  the  upper  walls  they  have  inserted  stones  which  had  evidently  been  dressed 
for  a  different  purpose.  Some  of  the  arcades  are  grossly  unequal ;  no  moulding 
preserves  the  same  level  and  form  round  the  whole  ellipse,  and  every  order  is 
full  of  license. 

Happily  for  the  Coliseum,  the  shape  necessary  to  an  amphitheatre  has  given  it 
a  stability  of  construction  sufficient  to  resist  fires,  and  earthquakes,  and  light- 


What  is  said  of  the  style  to  be  used  in  description  ?    What  are  writers  most  fre- 
quently called  on  to  describe  ? 

§  416.  In  the  description  of  material  objects,  what  heads  will  generally  bo 
found  appropriate  ? 


350  DESCEEPTION   OF  NATUBAL   SCENERY. 

nings,  and  Bieges.  Its  elliptical  form  was  the  hoop  which  bonnd  and  held  It  en» 
tire  till  barbarians  rent  that  consolidating  ring;  popes  widened  the  breach;  aud 
time,  not  unassisted,  continues  the  work  of  dilapidation.  At  this  moment,  the 
hermitage  is  threatened  with  a  dreadful  crash ;  and  a  generation  not  very  remote 
must  be  content,  I  apprehend,  with  the  picture  of  this  stupendous  monument. 

When  the  whole  amphitheatre  was  entire,  a  cliild  might  comprehend  its  de- 
sign in  a  moment,  and  go  direct  to  his  place  without  straying  in  the  porticos ; 
for  each  arcade  bears  its  number  engraved,  and  opposite  to  every  fourth  arcade 
was  a  staircase.  This  multiplicity  of  wide,  straight,  and  separate  passages, 
proves  the  attention  which  the  ancients  paid  to  the  safe  discharge  of  a  crowd ; 
it  finely  illustrates  the  precept  of  Vitruvius,  and  exposes  the  perplexity  of  some 
modem  theatres. 

Every  nation  has  undergone  its  revolution  of  vices ;  and,  as  cruelty  is  not  the 
present  vice  of  ours,  we  can  all  humanely  execrate  the  purpose  of  amphitheatres, 
now  that  they  lie  in  ruins.  Moralists  may  tell  us  that  the  truly  brave  are 
never  cruel;  but  this  monument  says,  "No."  Here  eat  the  conquerors  of  the 
world,  coolly  to  enjoy  the  tortures  and  death  of  men  who  had  never  offended 
them.  Two  aqueducts  were  scarcely  sufllcient  to  wash  off  the  human  blood 
which  a  few  hours'  sport  shed  in  this  imperial  shambles.  Twice  in  one  day  came 
the  senators  and  matrons  of  Rome  to  the  butchery ;  a  virgin  always  gave  the 
signal  for  slaughter;  and,  when  glutted  with  bloodshed,  those  ladies  sat  down  in 
the  wet  and  streaming  arena  to  a  luxurious  supper  1  Such  reflections  check  our 
regret  for  its  ruin. 

As  it  now  stands,  the  Coliseum  is  a  striking  image  of  Rome  itself;  decayed, 
vacant,  serious,  yet  grand ;  half-gray  and  half-green ;  erect  on  one  side  and  fallen 
on  the  other,  with  consecrated  ground  in  its  bosom ;  inhabited  by  a  beadsman  ; 
visited  by  every  caste ;  for  moralists,  antiquaries,  painters,  architects,  devotees, 
all  meet  here  to  meditate,  to  examine,  to  draw,  to  measure,  and  to  pray.  "In 
contemplating  antiquities,"  says  Livy,  "the  mind  itself  becomes  antique."  It 
contracts  from  such  objects  a  venerable  rust,  which  I  prefer  to  the  polish  and 
the  point  of  those  wits  who  have  lately  profaned  this  august  ruin  with  ridicule. 

EXERCISE. 
Write  a  Criticism  on  the  above  extract 


LESSON   XCIV. 

DESCRIPTION    OF    NATURAL   SCENERY,   AND  PERSONS. 

§  418.  In  descriptions  of  natural  scenery,  a  selection  may 
generally  be  made  from  the  following  heads.  The  order  in 
which  they  should  be  treated  depends  somewhat  on  the 
natiu-e  of  the  subject. 

§  418.  In  descriptions  of  natural  scenery,  what  heads  wUl  generally  be  found 
•ppropriate  ? 


DliSCEIPTIOlT   OF  NATURAL    SCENERY.  351 

I.  Circumstances  under  which  it  was  seen ;  whether  at  sunrise,  at 
noon,  or  by  moonlight. 
II.  Natural  features  of  the  scene ;  level  or  undulating ;  fertile  or  bar- 
ren ;  vegetation,  trees,  mountains,  streams,  &c.,  within  view. 

III.  Improvements  of  art;    whether  well  cultivated;   buildings,  and 
other  productions  of  human  industry. 

IV.  Living  creatures  that  animate  the  scene ;  human  beings. 
V.  Neighboring  inhabitants  ;  pecuHarities,  &c. 

VI.  Sounds ;  murmur  of  a  stream ;  noise  of  a  waterfall ;  rustling  of 
leaves  ;  lowing  of  cattle ;  barking  of  dogs  ;  singing  of  birds ;  cries 
of  children  ;  noise  of  machinery,  &c. 
VII.  Distant  prospect. 
VIII.  Comparison  with  any  other  scene. 
IX.  Historical  associations. 
X.  Feelings  awakened  in  the  mind. 

§  419.  For  an  example  of  this  kind  of  description,  the 
student  is  referred  to  the  following  extract  from  Sir  Walter 
Scott.  He  will  find  other  specimens,  of  a  different  style, 
inasmuch  as  they  treat  of  individual  curiosities  of  scenery 
rather  than  extended  landscapes,  in  Willis's  description  of 
the  Grotto  of  Adelsburg,  quoted  on  p.  90  of  this  volume,  and 
Campbell's  Account  of  Fingal's  Cave  in  a  letter  to  his  friend 
Thomson,  Lesson  XCVI. 

A  YORKSHIRE  FOREST  SCENE. 

The  sun  was  setting  upon  one  of  the  rich  grassy  glades  of  this  forest.  Hun- 
drcds  of  broad-headed,  sbort-stemmed,  wide-branched,  oaks,  which  had  wit- 
nessed, perhaps,  the  stately  march  of  the  Roman  soldiery,  flung  their  gnarled 
arms  over  a  thick  carpet  of  the  most  delicious  greensward.  In  some  places,  they 
were  intermingled  with  beeches,  hollies,  and  copsewood  of  various  descriptions, 
80  closely  as  totally  to  Intercept  the  level  beams  of  the  sinking  sun ;  in  others, 
they  receded  from  each  other,  fo lining  those  long  sweeping  vistas,  in  the  in- 
tricacy of  which  the  eye  delights  to  lose  itself,  while  imagination  considers  them 
as  the  paths  to  yet  wilder  scenes  of  sylvan  solitude.  Here,  the  red  rays  of  the 
sun  shot  a  broken  and  discolored  light  that  partially  hung  upon  the  shattered 
boughs  and  mossy  trunks  of  the  trees  ;  and  there,  they  illuminated,  in  brilliant 
patches,  the  portions  of  turf  to  which  they  made  their  way. 

A  considerable  open  space  in  the  midst  of  this  glade  seemed  formerly  to  have 
been  dedicated  to  the  rites  of  Druidical  superstition ;  for,  on  the  summit  of  a  hillock 
80  regular  as  to  seem  artificial,  there  still  remained  part  of  a  circle  of  rough  un- 
hewn stones  of  large  dimensions.  Seven  stood  upright;  the  rest  had  been  dis- 
lodged from  their  places,  probably  by  the  zeal  of  some  convert  to  Christianity, 
and  lay,  some  prostrate  near  their  former  site,  and  others  on  the  side  of  the  hill. 
One  large  stone  only  had  found  its  way  to  the  bottom ;  and,  in  stopping  the 
course  of  a  small  brook  which  glided  smoothly  round  the  foot  of  the  eminence, 
gave,  by  its  opposition,  a  feeble  voice  of  murmur  to  the  placid,  and  elsewhere 
Bilent,  streamlet. 

§  420.  Descriptions  of  persons  are  often  required  in  com- 


352  DESCRIPTION   OF   PERSONS. 

position.     In  writing  them,  such  heads  as  the  following  are 

generally  taken : — 

I.  Form ;  whether  tall  or  short,  fleshy  or  thin,  &c. 
II.  Face,  features,  hair,  expression,  &c. 

III.  Manners  ;  dignified,  graceful,  awkward,  haughty,  or  aflfable. 

IV.  Dress. 

V.  Any  peculiarity  of  appearance. 
VI.  Character,  disposition,  mental  abilities,  &c. 

§  421.  Two  graphic  specimens  of  this  kind  of  description 
are  given  below :  one  from  Cooper,  representing  a  well- 
drawn  character  in  his  "  Last  of  the  Mohicans  " ;  the  other, 
from  the  elegant  pen  of  Bulwer  : — 

DAVID    GAMUT,    THE   SINGING-MASTER. 

The  person  of  this  remarkable  individual  was  to  the  last  degree  ungaiuly, 
without  being  in  any  particular  manner  deformed.  He  had  all  the  bones  and 
joints  of  other  men,  without  any  of  their  proportions.  Erect,  his  stature  eur- 
passed  that  of  his  fellows  ;  though,  seated,  he  appeared  reduced  within  the  ordi- 
nary limits  of  our  race.  The  same  contrariety  in  his  members  seemed  to  exist 
throughout  the  whole  man.  His  head  was  large;  his  shoulders,  narrow;  his 
arms,  long  and  dangling ;  while  his  hands  were  small,  if  not  delicate.  His  legs 
and  thighs  were  thin  nearly  to  emaciation,  but  of  extraordinary  length  ;  and  his 
knees  would  have  been  considered  tremendous,  had  they  not  been  outdone  by 
the  broader  foundations  on  which  this  false  superstructure  of  blended  human 
orders  was  so  profanely  reared.  The  ill-assorted  and  injudicious  attire  of  the 
individual  only  served  to  render  his  awkwardness  more  conspicuous.  A  sky- 
blue  coat,  with  short  and  broad  skirts  and  low  cape,  exposed  a  long  thin  neck, 
and  longer  and  thinner  legs,  to  the  worst  animadversions  of  the  evil-disposed. 
His  nether  garment  was  of  yellow  nankeen,  closely  fitted  to  the  shape,  and  tied 
at  his  bunches  of  knees  by  large  knots  of  white  ribbon,  a  good  deal  sullied  by 
use.  Clouded  cotton  stockings,  and  shoes,  on  one  of  the  latter  of  which  was  a 
plated  spur,  completed  the  costume  of  the  lower  extrcmity  of  this  figure,  no 
curve  or  angle  of  which  was  concealed,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  studiously  ex- 
hibited, through  the  vanity  or  simplicity  of  its  owner.  From  beneath  the  flap  of 
an  enormous  pocket  of  a  soiled  vest  of  embossed  silk,  heavily  ornamented  with 
tarnished  silver  lace,  projected  an  instrument  [a  tuning-fork],  which,  from  being 
seen  in  such  martial  company,  might  have  been  easily  mistaken  for  some  mis- 
chievous and  unknown  implement  of  war.  Small  as  it  was,  this  uncommon  en- 
gine had  excited  the  curiosity  of  most  of  the  Europeans  in  the  camp,  though  sev- 
eral of  the  provincials  were  seen  to  handle  it,  not  only  without  fear,  but  with  the 
utmost  familiarity.  A  large  civil  cocked  hat,  like  those  worn  by  clenrymeu 
within  the  last  thirty  years,  surmounted  the  whole,  furnishing  dignity  to  a  jjood- 
natured  and  somewhat  vacant  countenance,  that  apparently  needed  such  artificial 
aid  to  support  the  gravity  of  some  high  and  extraordinary  trust. 

NINA   DI    RASELLI. 

At  once  vain,  yet  high-minded,— resolute,  yet  impassioned.— there  was  ft  gor- 
geous magnificence  in  her  very  vanity  and  splendor,  and  ideality  in  herwas'ward- 
ncss  :  her  defects  made  a  part  of  her  brilliancy;  without  them  she  would  have 
Bcemed  less  woman,  and,  knowing  Ucr,  you  would  have  compared  all  women  by 


DESCRIPTION   OF   PERSONS.  353 

her  standard.  Softer  qualities  beside  her  seemed  not  more  charming,  but  more 
insipid.  She  had  no  vulvar  ambition,  for  she  had  obstinately  refused  many  alli- 
ances which  the  daughter  of  Raselli  could  scarcely  have  hoped  to  form.  The  un- 
tutored minds  and  savage  power  of  the  Roman  nobles  seemed  to  her  imagination, 
which  was  full  of  the  poefr]/ oi'  rank  (its  luxuiy  and  its  graces),  as  something 
barbarous  and  revolting,  at  once  to  be  dreaded  and  despised.  She  had,  there- 
fore, passed  her  twentieth  year  unmarried,  but  not,  perhaps,  without  love.  The 
faults  themselves  of  her  chai-acter,  elevated  that  ideal  of  love  which  she  had 
formed.  She  required  some  being  round  whom  all  her  vainer  qualities  could 
rally ;  she  felt  that  where  she  loved  she  must  adore  ;  she  demanded  no  common 
idol  before  which  to  humble  so  strong  and  imperious  a  mind.  Unlike  women 
of  a  gentler  mould,  who  desire  for  a  short  period  to  exercise  the  caprices  of  sweet 
empire,  when  she  loved  she  must  cease  to  command,  and  pride,  at  once,  be  hum- 
bled to  devotion.  So  rare  were  the  qualities  that  could  attract  her,  so  iaipe- 
riously  did  her  haughtiness  require  that  those  qualities  should  be  above  her  own, 
yet  of  the  same  order,  that  her  love  elevated  its  object  like  a  god.  Accustomed 
to  despise,  she  felt  all  the  luxury  it  is  to  venerate  1  And  if  it  were  her  lot  to  bo 
united  to  one  thus  loved,  her  nature  was  that  which  might  become  elevated  by 
that  it  gazed  on. 

For  her  beauty,  reader,  shouldst  thou  ever  go  to  Rome,  thou  wilt  see  in  the 
capitol  the  picture  of  the  Cumoean  Sibyl,  which,  often  copied,  no  copy  can  even 
faintly  represent ;  why  this  is  so  called  I  know  not,  save  that  it  has  something 
strange  and  unearthly  in  the  dark  beauty  of  the  eyes.  I  beseech  thee,  mistake 
not  this  sibyl  for  another,  for  the  Roman  galleries  abound  in  sibyls.  The  sibyl  I 
speak  of  is  dark,  and  the  face  has  an  Eastern  cast ;  the  robe  and  turban,  gorgeous 
though  they  be,  grow  dim  before  the  rich  but  transparent  roses  of  the  cheek ; 
the  hair  would  be  black  save  for  that  golden  glow  which  mellows  it  to  a  hue  and 
lustre  never  seen  but  in  the  South,  and  even  in  the  South  most  rare ;  the  fea- 
tures, not  Grecian,  are  yet  faultless;  the  mouth,  the  brow,  the  ripe  and  ex- 
quisite contour,  all  are  human  and  voluptuous ;  the  expression,  the  aspect,  is 
something  more ;  the  form  is,  perhaps,  too  full  for  the  ideal  of  loveliness,  for  the 
proportions  of  sculpture,  for  the  delicacy  of  Athenian  models  ;  but  the  luxuriant 
fault  has  a  majesty.  Gaze  long  upon  that  picture :  it  charms,  yet  commands, 
the  eye.  While  you  gaze,  you  call  back  five  centuries.  You  see  before  you  the 
breathing  image  of  Nina  di  Raselli. 

EXERCISE. 
Write  a  Criticism  on  either  of  these  extracts. 


LESSON    XCV. 

NARRATION.— ARGtlMENT. — EXPOSITION. — SPECULATION. 

§  422.  Narration  is  the  account  of  real  or  imaginary  facts 
or  events.    A  neat  or  an  elegant  style  is  most  effective  for  this 

§  422.  What  is  narration  ?    What  style  is  recommended  for  this  kind  of  writ 
tog  1    In  what  order  should  events  be  related  ? 


354:  AKGUMKNT. — EXPOSITION. — SPECULATION. 

kind  of  writing,  in  which  too  much  ornament  is  out  of  place. 
Events  should  be  related  in  the  order  of  their  occurrence, 
and  in  such  a  way  that  the  interest  of  the  reader  may  be 
kept  alive. 

§  423.  Argument  is  the  statement  of  reasons  for  or 
against  a  proposition,  made  with  the  view  of  inducing  be- 
lief in  others.  Clearness  and  strength  are  essential  to  its 
success.  Little,  if  any,  ornament  is  necessary;  to  this 
element  of  composition,  a  neat  diffuse  style  is  appropriate. 

§  424.  Exposition  consists  in  explaining  the  meaning  of 
an  author,  in  defining  terms,  setting  forth  an  abstract  subject 
in  its  various  relations,  or  presenting  doctrines,  precepts, 
principles,  or  rules,  for  the  purpose  of  instructing  others.  A 
treatise  on  grammar,  for  instance,  consists  principally  of  ex- 
position. Clearness  being  the  chief  object,  and  the  nature 
of  the  subject  in  most  cases  almost  entirely  excluding  orna- 
ment, this  kind  of  matter  should  be  presented  in  a  neat, 
concise,  style. 

§  425.  Speculation  is  the  expression  of  theoretical  views 
not  as  yet  verified  by  fact  or  practice.  It  enters  largely  into 
works  on  metaphysics,  and  is  best  understood  through  the 
medium  of  a  neat,  simple,  style. 

§  426.  A  specimen  of  narration  follows  : — 

THE   FIELD   OF   THE   PIOUS. 

In  one  of  those  terrible  eruptions  of  Mount  Etna  which  have  often  happened, 
the  danger  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  adjacent  country  was  uncommonly  great. 
To  avoid  immediate  destruction  from  the  flames  and  the  melted  lava  which  ran 
down  the  sides  of  the  mountain,  the  people  were  obliged  to  retire  to  a  consider- 
able distance.  Amidst  the  hurry  and  confusion  of  such  a  scene,  every  one  fleeing 
and  carrying  away  whatever  he  deemed  most  precious,  two  brothers,  in  ths 
height  of  their  solicitude  for  the  preservation  of  their  wealth  and  goods,  suddenly 
recollected  that  their  fother  and  mother,  both  very  old,  were  unable  to  save 
themselves  by  flight.  Filial  tenderness  triumphed  over  every  other  considera- 
tion. "Where,"  cried  the  generous  youths,  "shall  wo  find  a  more  precious 
treasure  than  they  are,  who  gave  us  being,  and  who  have  cherished  and  protect- 

§  423.  What  Is  argument  ?    In  what  style  is  It  best  presented  ? 

§  421.  In  what  docs  exposition  consist?  Of  what,  for  instance,  does  it  form 
the  principal  part  ?  What  is  the  chief  object  in  exposition?  What  style  is  ap- 
propriate to  it? 

§  425.  Wliat  is  speculation  ?  Into  what  does  It  largely  enter  ?  Through  what 
style  ia  It  best  understood  ? 


LETTEES.  355 

ed  us  through  life  ? "  Having  said  this,  the  one  taking  up  his  father  on  his 
shoulders,  and  the  other  his  mother,  they  happily  made  their  way  through  the 
surrounding  smoke  and  flames.  All  who  were  witnesses  of  this  dutiful  and 
affectionate  conduct  were  struck  with  the  highest  admiration;  and  they  and 
their  posterity  ever  after  called  the  plain  through  which  these  young  men  made 
their  retreat,  "  The  Field  of  the  Pious  ". 

EXERCISE. 

I.  Amplify  the  above  specimen  of  narration,  presenting 
it  entirely  in  your  own  language. 

n.  Amplify  the  following  heads  into  a  specimen  of  nar- 
i-ation,  in  the  style  of  the  above  model,  using  your  ov\^ 
language  throughout: — 

THE   SWORD   OF   DAMOCLES. 

Dionysius,  tyrant  of  Sicily,  though  surrounded  by  riches  and  pleas- 
ures, was  far  from  being  happy.     [Why  ?] 

Damocles,  one  day,  complimented  him  on  his  power,  and  affirmed 
that  no  monarch  was  ever  greater  or  happier  than  he. 

Dionysius  asked  him  whether  he  would  like  to  make  trial  of  this 
happiness,  and  see  whether  it  was  as  great  as  he  imagined. 

On  Damocles'  gladly  consenting,  the  king  ordered  a  gilded  couch  to 
be  brought  in  for  him,  a  splendid  banquet  to  be  prepared,  and  the  royal 
pages  to  wait  on  him  as  if  he  were  their  monarch.  [Describe  the  ban- 
quet.] 

Damocles  was  intoxicated  with  pleasure.  But,  chancing  to  look  up, 
as  he  lay  luxuriously  pillowed  on  his  royal  couch,  he  saw  a  glittering 
sword  suspended  from  the  ceiling,  by  a  single  hair,  exactly  ovei*  his 
head. 

This  sight  put  an  end  to  his  joy.  The  rare  perfumes  and  inviting 
dishes  had  lost  their  charm.  [Describe  his  feelings  in  detail.]  Finally, 
leaping  from  the  couch,  he  besought  the  king  to  allow  him  to  return  to 
his  former  humble  position.  [Moral  which  Dionysius,  in  his  answer, 
drew  from  this  act  of  his  courtier,  with  respect  to  the  happiness  of  kings.] 


LESSON   XCVI. 

LETTERS. 

§  427.  There  are  six  leading  divisions  of  Prose  Composi- 
tion ;  Letters,  Narratives,  Fiction,  Essays,  Theses  or  Argu- 
mentative Discourses,  and  Orations. 


S  427.  Enumerate  the  six  leading  divisions  of  prose  composition. 


366  LETTERS. 

LETTERS. 

§  438.  Definition. — A  Letter  is  a  written  communication 
on  any  subject  from  one  person  to  another. 

Letter-writing  is  commonly  called  Epistolary  Correspond- 
ence. It  is  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  compo- 
sition, entering  more  largely  than  any  other  into  the  daily 
business  of  life. 

The  form  of  the  letter  has  often  been  used  for  essays,  novels,  histo- 
ries, &c. ;  that  is,  these  productions  have  been  divided  into  parts,  each 
of  which  commences  with  an  address  to  some  friend  of  tlie  author  or 
imaginary  personage,  as  if  it  had  passed  as  an  actual  communication. 
Such  compositions,  however,  should  be  classed  under  the  divisions  to 
which,  according  to  their  matter,  they  respectively  belong.  The  letter 
proper  is  one  intended  for  the  person  to  whom  it  is  addressed. 

§  429.    Varieties.— The  principal  kinds  of  letters  are, 

L  News  letters,  or  communications  to  papers  or  periodi- 
cals, containing  accounts  of  what  has  happened  or  is  haj> 
pening  elsewhere  than  at  the  place  of  publication. 

Such  communications  have  lately  become  popular,  and  now  form  a 
feature  of  almost  all  leading  newspapers.  In  these  letters,  profundity  is 
not  expected,  unless  they  treat  of  political,  religious,  or  other  serious 
topics.  They  should  rather  be  characterized  by  brilliancy  of  thought, 
and  an  original,  striking,  mode  of  expression.  Their  effect  may  often  be 
increased  by  strokes  of  humor,  and  what  is  commonly  called  piqiiatin/y 
or  a  pleasing  vein  of  sarcasm  on  persons  and  things  in  general.  Taste 
and  judgment  are  I'cquired  for  a  proper  selection  of  subjects.  The  space 
allowed,  being  generally  limited,  should  be  filled  to  the  best  advantage. 
Local  matters  should  be  avoided ;  it  is  well  to  introduce  no  topics  but 
those  of  general  interest. 

II.  Letters  of  business.  In  these,  brevity  and  clearness 
are  all-important.  The  writer  should  aim  at  the  greatest 
degree  of  conciseness  consistent  with  perspicuity,  and  should 
confine  himself  strictly  to  the  business  in  hand. 

III.  Official  letters,  or  such  as  pass  between  men  in 

fl  428.  What  is  a  fetter?  What  is  letter-writing  commonly  called  ?  What  is 
enidofits  importance?  For  wlint  Is  the  fonu  of  the  letter  often  need?  How 
should  Huch  conipoHitions  be  clas>9ed  ?    What  \»  the  letter  proper  ? 

5  429.  What  are  the  principal  kinds  of  letters  ?  What  are  new9  letters  ?  What 
lb  eaidof  the  popularity  of  news  lettcru?    ^liat  is  not  expected  in  them?    Dy 


LETTEES. 


357 


office,  respecting  public  affairs.  These  are  always  formal, 
and  abound  in  phrases  of  courtesy.  Their  style  should  be 
firm  and  dignified. 

IV.  Letters  of  friendship. 

In  these,  a  tendency  to  diffuseness,  arising  in  young  writers  from  a 
fear  that  they  may  not  have  enough  matter  to  fill  the  sheet,  must  be 
avoided.  "  There  is  hardly  any  species  of  composition,  in  my  opinion," 
says  Kirke  White,  "  easier  than  the  epistolary,"  There  is  an  off-hand 
ease  about  the  letter  which  renders  its  production  a  work  of  but  UtUe 
time  or  difficulty :  and,  by  reason  of  this  very  facility  of  composition,  the 
writer  is  apt  to  express  himself  carelessly  and  without  proper  thought. 
Time  and  labor  should  be  bestowed  on  this,  as  well  as  every  other,  de- 
partment of  composition. 

Flippancy,  also,  should  be  carefully  avoided.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  what  is  committed  to  paper  does  not,  like  conversation,  pass 
into  forgetfulness ;  it  is  preserved,  and  may,  at  any  time,  be  made  pub- 
lic. We  should  therefore  never  write,  even  to  the  most  intimate  friend, 
any  thing  which  we  would  be  ashamed  that  the  world  should  see. 

The  commonest  fault,  perhaps,  of  letters  of  friendship,  is  egotism. 
This  can  not  but  be  distasteful  to  the  person  addressed,  no  matter  how- 
great  his  interest  in  the  writer.  A  friend,  of  course,  expects  from  his 
correspondent  some  personal  intelligence,  but  he  looks  for  other  matter 
along  with  it ;  and  will  inevitably  be  struck  with  the  bad  taste  of  one 
who  confines  his  letter  to  an  enumeration  of  his  own  exploits  or  those 
of  the  limited  circle  to  which  he  belongs.  In  like  manner,  we  should 
avoid  filling  a  letter  with  details  relating  to  parties  with  whom  the  person 
addressed  is  unacquainted. 

V.  Letters  of  condolence,  written  to  persons  in  affliction 
for  the  purpose  of  expressing  sympathy  with  their  mis- 
fortunes. In  these,  great  tact  is  necessary ;  for  ill-judged 
consolation,  instead  of  healing  the  wound,  opens  it  afresh. 
In  this,  as  well  as  the  two  classes  which  follow,  the  writer 
should  confine  himself  to  the  leading  subject  of  his  commu- 
nication. 

what  should  they  be  characterized  ?  What  often  increases  their  effect  ?  What 
topics  should  he  selected  for  such  letters  ?  What  are  required  in  letters  of  busi- 
ness ?  To  what  must  thoy  be  confined  ?  What  is  meant  by  official  letters  ?  De- 
scribe them.  In  letters  of  friendship,  to  what  is  there  a  tendency  ?  What  does 
Kirke  White  say  of  cpistolaiy  correspondence  ?  To  what  is  this  facility  of  com- 
position apt  to  lead  ?  What  else  must  be  carefully  avoided?  Why?  What  should 


368  LETTERS. 

VI.  Letters  of  congratulation,  or  those  in  which  the 
writer  professes  his  joy  at  the  success  or  happiness  of  an- 
other, or  at  some  event  deemed  fortunate  for  both  parties  or 
for  the  community  at  large.  They  should  be  brief,  sincere, 
and  to  the  point. 

Vn.  Letters  of  introduction,  in  which  the  writer  com- 
mends a  friend  to  the  kind  offices  of  some  third  party. 

It  is  customary  to  leave  such  letters  unsealed,  and  to  put  on  tho 
back,  besides  the  superscription,  the  name  of  the  party  introduced.  In 
giving  letters  of  introduction,  it  is  of  primary  importance  to  adhere 
strictly  to  the  truth.  It  is  false  kindness  to  exaggerate  the  merits  of 
the  bearer,  or  to  recommend  in  high  terms  a  person  but  partially  known. 
Such  a  course  often  places  all  parties  concerned  in  an  impleasant  position. 

§  430.  Style. — The  style  of  letters  (with  the  exception  of 
official  commimications,  which  require  a  studied  and  formal 
elegance)  should  be  simple,  easy,  and  natural.  All  appear- 
ance of  effort,  far-fetched  ornaments,  and  attempts  at  dis- 
play, are  fatal  to  their  effect.  Puerilities  and  affected  sim- 
plicity, on  the  other  hand,  are  equally  objectionable. 

A  good  letter  bears  the  same  relation  to  other  kinds  of  writing,  that 
friendly  conversation  does  to  the  more  dignified  varieties  of  spoken  lan- 
guage. "  I  love  talking  letters  dearly,"  said  the  poet  Cowper,  and  the 
majority  of  correspondents  will  agree  with  him.  A  letter  of  friendship 
should  be  a  mirror  of  the  writer's  mind,  and  nothing  is  so  likely  to  in- 
sure this  as  a  conversational  stylo.  Wc  should  write  as  we  would  speak 
were  the  friend  we  address  suddenly  to  make  his  appearance, — yet,  of 
course,  with  more  deliberation  and  care.  •  If  his  stay  were  to  be  brief, 
we  would  naturally  touch  only  on  the  more  interesting  topics ;  and  so, 
in  a  letter,  where  we  are  necessarily  limited,  we  should  give  preference 
to  those  subjects  that  are  most  important. 

wo  never  write,  even  to  the  most  intimate  friend  ?  Wliat  is  the  commonest 
fault  of  letters  of  friendship  ?  Wliat  is  the  eflfcct  of  egotism  on  the  person  ad- 
dressed? With  what,  iu  like  manner,  should  wo  avoid  filling  a  letter?  What 
are  letters  of  condolence  ?  Why  should  they  be  written  with  great  tact  ?  To 
what  should  the  writer  confine  himself?  What  are  letters  of  congratulation  ? 
What  should  be  their  character?  "NVhat  is  meant  by  letters  of  introduction? 
What  is  customary  with  respect  to  such  letters  ?    What  caution  is  given  ? 

§  430.  What  stylo  is  most  effective  for  letters  ?  What  exception  is  made  ? 
What  must  be  avoided  ?  To  what  is  tho  relation  which  a  good  letter  bears  to 
other  kinds  of  writing  compared  ?  What  kind  of  letters  did  Cowper  like  ?  How 
•hould  we  write  to  a  friend  ?    What  subjects  should  we  eelect  ? 


LETTEES.  359 

§  431.  Answers. — Every  letter,  not  insulting,  merits  a 
prompt  reply ;  and  such  a  reply  is  called  an  Answer.  In 
answering,  it  is  proper  always,  at  the  outset,  to  acknowledge 
the  receipt  of  your  correspondent's  communication,  in  some 
such  words,  for  instance,  as  the  following :  "  Yours  of  the 
15th  inst.  came  safely  to  hand  yesterday  ;  and  I  am  glad  to 
learn  from  it,"  &c. ;  or,  "  Your  welcome  letter  of  the  10th 
tilt,  was  received  in  due  course  of  mail,  and  would  have  been 
answered  sooner  had  it  not  been,"  &c. 

Besides  this,  it  is  customary  for  a  person  answering  a  business  or 
official  letter  to  embody  in  his  opening  sentence  a  statement  of  what  he 
understands  it  to  contain ;  as  in  the  following,  which  also  illustrates  the 
profuse  use  of  form  and  titles  in  official  communications  : — 

Department  of  State, 
Washington,  April  28,  1854. 
The  undersigned.  Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States,  has  had 
the  honor  to  receive  the  note  of  Mr. ,  her  Britannic  Majesty's  En- 
voy Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary,  of  the  2l8t  instant,  ac- 
companied by  the  declaration  of  her  Majesty  the  Queen  of  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  in  regard  to  the  rule  which  will 
for  the  present  be  observed  towards  those  Powers  with  which  she  is  at 
peace,  in  the  existing  war  with  Russia. 

§  432.  Manual  JEJxecution. — By  complying  with  the 
following  suggestions,  the  student  will  insure  neatness  in 
making  copies  of  his  letters  and  other  compositions : — 

Draw  two  light  pencil  lines  parallel  with  the  left  edge  of  the  page, 
the  first  about  half  an  inch,  the  second  an  inch  and  a  half,  distant  from 
it.  Commence  your  composition,  and  every  successive  paragraph,  on 
the  inner  marginal  line ;  but  let  the  body  of  your  writing  rest  on  the 
outer  one.  When  you  have  completed  a  page,  erase  the  marginal  lines 
neatly  with  india-rubber.  When  a  letter  is  not  long  enough  to  fill  a 
page,  it  should  not  be  commenced  on  the  first  line,  but  at  such  a  dis- 
tance from  it  as  will  leave  an  equal  space  above  and  below. 

§  433.  Date, — The  date  of  a  letter,  which  should  always 


§431.  What  is  meant  by  an  answer?  What  letters  merit  answers  ?  In  an- 
swering, what  is  always  proper  at  the  outset  ?  Give  examples.  Besides  this, 
what  is  it  customary  for  a  person  answering  a  business  or  official  letter  to  em- 
body in  the  opening  sentence  ?    Give  an  example. 

§  432.  What  suggestions  are  made,  for  the  purpose  of  insuring  neatness  ? 

%  433.  Describe  the  date  of  a  letter.    Where  does  it  stand  ? 


360  LETTEES. 

be  distinctly  stated,  must  stand  at  the  right  of  the  first  line. 
It  consists  of  the  name  of  the  place  where  it  is  written,  the 
month,  day  of  the  month,  and  year;  as,  Mobile^  August 
2Qth,  1868. 

§  434.  Address. — The  address  of  a  letter  is  found  on  the 
next  line  below  the  date,  at  the  left  side.  It  contains,  in  the 
first  line,  the  name  and  title  of  the  party  written  to ;  and, 
on  the  second,  the  words,  "  Sir,"  "  Dear  Sir,"  "  My  dear 
Sir,"  for  a  gentleman, — or,  "  Madam,"  "  Dear  Madam,"  "  My 
dear  Madam,"  for  a  married  lady, — according  to  the  degree 
of  intimacy. 

An  unmarried  lady  is  best  addressed  in  a  single  line : 
*'  Miss ; "  "  Dear  Miss ; "  or, "  My  dear  Miss ." 

In  addressing  a  business  firm,  place  on  the  first  line  its 
proper  style  and  title ;  and,  on  the  second,  the  word  "  Gen- 
tlemen "  or  "  Ladies  ",  according  to  the  sex  of  the  parties 
composing  it. 

A  relative  is  properly  addressed  by  the  name  that  indi- 
cates the  relationship ;  as,  "  My  dear  Father,"  "  My  dear 
Grandson,"  "  My  dear  Sister ; "  or,  a  relative  of  the  same 
age,  or  a  friend,  may  be  addressed  by  the  Christian  name, 
if  intimacy  will  allow  it ;  as,  "  My  dear  William,"  "  My  dear 
Julia." 

Some  prefer  placing  the  first  line,  containing  the  name  and  title  of 
the  party  addressed,  at  the  bottom  of  the  letter  instead  of  the  top,  ;» 
above  suggested. 

Examples  of  proper  forms  of  date  and  address  follow ;  the  pupil  will 
do  well  to  observe  their  punctuation : — 

1T3  Greenwich  St.,  Xew  York,  ) 
Sept.  1,  1868.  j" 

Messrs.  Davis  &  Clapp : 
Gentlemen, 


$  4d4.  Where  is  the  address  of  a  letter  found  ?  Describe  it.  How  Ib  an  un- 
married lady  best  addressed  ?  Describe  the  address  of  a  business  firm.  How 
is  a  relative  properly  addressed  ?  Where  do  some  prefer  placiufj  the  first  lino 
contaiuinji  the  name  and  title  of  the  party  addressed  ?  Give  some  examples  of 
proper  forms  of  date  and  address. 


Hon.  E.  S.  Norton, 

Canal  Com.  of  the  State  of  N.  Y. : 
Sir, 


LETTERS.  361 

\ 


Jackson,  N.  C, 
2d  Sept.,  1868. 


Rev.  James  Norton,  D.  D. 
Rev.  and  dear  Sir, 


Stewart  L.  Roy,  Esq. : 
Dear  Sir, 


Mesdames  E.  &  J.  Lacretelle : 
Ladies, 


Miss  R.  A.  Tompkins : 
My  dear  Friend, 


Haskins  P.  0.,  Tenn., 
September  3,  1868. 


Steamer  Washington,      ) 
Miss.  River,  Sept.  4th,  '68.  f 

Boston,  Aug.  20,  '68. 

N.  0.,  Aug.  26,  1868. 


§  435.  Subscrij^tion. — By  the  subscription  of  a  letter  is 
meant  that  clause  or  sentence  at  the  end  which  contains  the 
terms  of  affection  or  respect,  and  the  signature.  Different 
forms  are  appropriate,  according  to  the  relative  position  of 
the  writer  and  the  person  addressed.  A  few  of  the  most 
common  are  subjoined.  It  will  be  seen  at  once  in  what  case 
each  is  appropriate.     Observe  the  punctuation,  as  before. 

I  remain,  dear  Sir, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

Geo.  H.  Smith. 

Allow  me  to  subscribe  myself 

Your  obliged  and  obt.  servt., 

Thomas  Dean. 

With  my  best  wishes  for  your  welfare,  I  remain 
Your  sincere  friend, 

Reuben  H.  S.  Wells. 

Hoping  to  hear  from  you  without  delay,  I  remain 
Yours  &c., 

S.  Wellman  Brown. 

§  435.  What  is  meant  "by  the  subscription  of  a  letter?    To  what  must  the  sub- 
Bcriptiou  be  appropriate  ?    Give  examples, 

16 


302  LETTERS. 


"With  my  best  love  to  all,  I  am,  as  ever, 

Your  afifectionate  daughter, 
Helen. 


Rest  assured,  dear  Madam,  that  your  long-continued  kindness  will 
not  be  forgotten,  but  will  ever  command  the  gratitude  and  service  of 
Yours  most  respectfully  and  truly, 

Horace  H.  Hinman. 


Whatever  may  betide,  you  have  the  warm  and  earnest  sympathy  of 
Your  faithful  and  affectionate  cousin, 
Jane. 


The  undersigned  has  the  honor  to  avail  himself  of  this  opportunity 
to  renew  to  the  Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States  the  assurance  of 
his  distinguished  consideration. 

John  F.  Crampton. 

Hon.  W.  L,  Marcy,  Secretary  of  State,  &c. 

§  436.  We  subjoin  four  specimens  of  the  different  kinds 
of  letters.  The  first  is  a  business  letter,  given  by  a  person 
of  known  responsibility  to  a  friend,  to  enable  the  latter  to 
procure  goods  on  time.  It  is  commonly  called  a  letter  of 
credit.  The  second  is  a  letter  of  introduction.  The  third 
is  a  letter  of  friendship,  written  by  the  poet  Campbell, 
descriptive  of  a  visit  to  Fingal's  Cave.  The  fourth  is  in  a 
more  familiar  style,  being  one  of  Moore's  letters  to  his 
mother.  The  student  is  particularly  requested  to  notice 
their  characteristics. 


No.  1.    Letter  op  Credit. 

September  15, 1868 


Cobnrjr,  Canada  West, » 


Gentlemen, 

Please  deliver  to  Richard  Berry,  of  this  place,  goods,  silks,  and  merchandise, 
to  any  amount  not  exceeding  five  thousand  dollars ;  and  I  will  hold  myself  ac- 
countable to  you  for  tho  payment  of  the  same,  In  case  Mr.  Berry  should  fell  to 
make  payment  therefor. 

You  will  please  to  notify  me  of  the  amount  for  which  you  may  ^ve  him  credit ; 
and,  if  default  should  be  made  in  the  payment,  let  me  know  it  immediately. 
I  am,  gentlemen,  /our  moBt  oht.  servant, 

John  Anderson. 
Messrs.  Isaac  Smith  &  Co., 

No.  25  Broadway,  N.  Y. 


LETTEES.  363 

No.  2.    Letter  of  Introduction. 

St.  Louis,  Jan.  3, 1869. 
My  dear  Sir, 

Allow  me  to  introduce  to  you  my  friend,  Cyrus  Johnson,  a  distinguished 
teacher  of  this  place,  who  visits  your  city  for  the  purpose  of  making  himself  ac- 
quainted with  the  system  of  instruction  pursued  in  your  common  schools.  He  is 
one  whose  life  thus  far  has  been  devoted  to  the  cause  of  education,  and  whose 
efforts  have  already  been  signally  blessed  to  hundreds  of  our  youth.  Any  aid, 
therefore,  that  you  may  be  able  to  render  him  in  the  prosecution  of  his  inquiries, 
will  be  a  service  to  our  whole  community,  as  well  as  a  pei-sonal  favor  to 

Yours  very  truly, 

Henry  F.  Quinn. 
Joseph  B.  Stacy,  Esq., 
14  Fifth  Avenue,  N.Y. 


No.  3. 

J,  16th  day  of  t 

Sept.  16, 1795. 


Thule's  Wildest  Shore,  16th  day  of  the  Harvest  Storm,  I 


My  dear  Friend, 

I  have  deferred  answering  your  very  welcome  favor  till  I  could  inform  you  of 
the  accomplishment  of  my  long-meditated  tour  through  the  Western  Isles. 
Though  I  have  been  disappointed  in  my  expectations  of  seeing  St.  Kilda,  yet  I 
have  no  reason  to  be  dissatisfied  with  my  short  voyage,  having  visited  the  famous 
Staffa  and  Icolmkill,  so  much  admired  by  your  countrymen.  I  had  fonned,  as 
usual,  very  sanguine  ideas  of  the  happiness  I  should  enjoy  in  beholding  wonders 
so  new  to  me.  I  was  not  in  the  least  disappointed.  The  grand  regularity  of 
Staffa,  and  the  venerable  ruins  of  lona,  filled  me  with  emotions  of  pleasure  to 
which  I  had  heen  hitherto  a  stranger.  It  was  not  merely  the  gratification  of 
curiosity ;  for  these  two  islands  are  marked  with  a  grand  species  of  beauty,  be- 
sides their  novelty,  and  a  remarkable  difference  from  all  the  other  islands  among 
the  Hebrides.  In  short,  when  I  looked  into  the  cave  of  Staffa,  I  regretted  noth- 
ing but  that  my  friend  was  not  there  too. 

Staffa,  the  nearest  to  Mull,  and  the  most  admirable  of  all  the  Hebrides,  is  but 
a  small  island,  but  exceedingly  fertile.  From  one  point  to  another,  it  is  probably 
an  English  mile.  The  shore  is  boisterous  and  rocky  near  the  sea ;  but  at  the 
distance  of  twenty  yards  from  its  rugged  base,  it  rises  for  thirty  or  forty  feet  into 
a  smooth,  stony,  plain,  gradually  sloping  to  the  bottom  of  the  rocks,  which  rise 
perpendicularly  to  a  vast  height,  and  form  the  walls  of  the  island.  On  the  top 
of  these  are  rich  plains  of  grass  and  com,  in  the  centre  of  which  stands  a  lonely 
hut,  in  appearance  very  like  the  abode  of  a  hermit  or  savage. 

The  walls  of  the  island  (for  so  I  beg  leave  to  denominate  the  rocks  that  form 
its  sides)  are  traly  wonderful.  They  are  divided  into  natural  pillars,  of  a  tri- 
angular shape.  These  pillars  are  not  a  random  curiosity,  broken  and  irregular. 
They  are  as  exactly  similar  and  well-proportioned,  as  if  the  hand  of  an  artist  had 
carved  them  out  on  the  walls  with  a  chisel.  The  range  of  them  is  so  very  long 
and  steep  that  we  can  not  admit  the  idea  of  their  being  wrought  by  human  hands. 
There  is  a  wildness  and  sublimity  in  them  beyond  what  art  can  produce ;  and 
we  are  so  struck  with  its  regularity  that  we  can  hardly  allow  Nature  the  merit 
of  such  an  artificial  work.  Certain  it  is,  if  Art  accomplished  such  a  curiosity, 
she  has  handled  instruments  more  gigantic  than  any  which  are  used  at  present ; 
and  if  Nature  designed  the  pillars,  she  has  bestowed  more  geometry  on  the  rocks 
of  Staffa,  than  on  any  of  her  works  so  stupendous  in  size.    The  cave  of  Staffa  is 


364  LETTERS. 

at  least  three  hundred  feet  long,  lined  with  long  Btripcs  of  pillars  of  the  samo 
kind,  and  hung  at  the  top  with  stones  of  an  exact  figure  of  five  side?.  The  height 
is  seventy  feet,  so  that,  being  very  wide,  it  appears  like  a  very  large  Gothic 
cathedral.  Its  arch  is  gradually  narrowed  at  the  top,  and  its  base,  except  the 
footpath  on  one  side,  is  the  sea  which  comes  in.  V/e  entered  the  mouth  of  tho 
cave  with  a  peal  of  bagpipes,  which  made  a  most  tremendous  echo. 

Icolmkill  is  venerable  for  being  the  burial-place  of  forty-eight  Scotch,  and 
eight  Danish,  kings,  whose  tombs  we  saw.  Our  voyage  lasted  three  days.  I  slept 
the  first  night  at  Icolmkill,  the  second  at  Tiree,  and  the  third  a^-ain  at  Mull. 

If  I  had  room,  I  would  scribble  down  an  elegy,  composed  a  few  days  after  my 
arrival  in  Mull  from  Glasgow ;  but  you  see  I  have  clattered  away  all  my  paper 
upon  Staffa.  I  depend  upon  your  good-nature  to  excuse  my  prolix  description, 
and  the  illegible  scrawling  of  your  very  sincere  friend, 

Lb  Camellb. 

Mr.  James  ThomBon,  London. 


No.  4. 

Aboard  the  Boston,  1 

Sandy  Hook,  thirty  miles  from  New  York,  V 
Friday,  May  11, 1804,  ) 

My  darling  Mother, 

I  wrote  to  you  on  my  arrival  at  New  York,  where  I  have  been  nearly  a  week, 
and  am  now  returned  aboard  the  frigate,  which  but  waits  a  fair  wind  to  sail  for 
Norfolk.  The  Halifax  packet  is  lying  alongside  of  us,  and  I  shall  take  the  oppor- 
tunity of  sending  this  letter  by  her.  At  New  York,  I  was  made  happy  by  my 
father's  letter  of  the  25th  January,  and  dear  Kate's  of  the  30th,  which  make  four 
in  nil  that  T  have  received  from  home.  I  had  so  very  few  opportunities  at  Ber- 
muda, and  they  were  attended  with  so  much  uncertainty,  that  I  fear  you  may 
have  suff'ered  many  an  anxious  moment,  darling  mother,  from  the  interruption 
and  delay  of  the  few  letters  I  could  despatch  to  you.  But,  please  Heaven  !  we 
shall  soon  have  those  barriers  of  distance  removed ;  my  own  tongue  shall  tell 
you  my  ''travel's  history",  and  your  heart  shall  go  along  with  hie  over  every 
billow  and  step  of  the  way.  When  I  left  Bermuda,  I  could  not  help  regretting 
tliat  the  hopes  which  took  me  thither  could  not  be  even  half  realized ;  for  I 
should  love  to  live  there,  and  you  would  like  it  too,  dear  mother :  and  I  think  if 
the  situation  would  give  mo  but  a  fourth  of  what  I  was  so  deludingly  taught  to 
expect,  you  should  all  have  come  to  me  ;  and,  though  set  apart  from  the  rest  of 
the  world,  we  should  have  found  in  that  quiet  spot,  and  under  that  sweet  sky, 
quite  enough  to  counterbalance  what  the  rest  of  the  world  could  give  us.  But  I 
am  still  to  seek,  and  can  only  hope  that  I  may  find  at  last. 

The  environs  of  New  York  are  pretty,  from  the  number  of  little,  fanciful, 
wooden  houses  that  are  scattered,  to  the  distance  of  six  to  eight  miles,  round 
tho  city;  but  when  one  reflects  upon  tho  cause  of  this,  and  that  these 
houses  are  the  retreat  of  the  terrified,  desponding,  inhabitants,  from  the 
wilderness  of  death  which  every  autumn  produces  in  the  city,*  there  is  very 
little  pleasure  in  the  prospect ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  rich  fields,  and  tho 
various  blossoms  of  their  orchards,  I  prefer  the  barren,  breezy,  rock  of  Bermuda 
to  whole  continents  of  such  dearly-purchased  fertility. 

While  in  New  York,  I  employed  my  time  to  advantage  in  witnessing  all  the 
novelties  possible.    I  saw  young  M.  Buonaparte,  and  felt  a  slight  shock  of  an 


*  Reference  is  here  i«.tde  to  the  yellow  fevor,  which,  at  the  time  thU  letter  wm  written,  prCTalled  la 
New  York,  to  «  greater  or  less  extent,  every  year. 


LETTERS.  365 

earthquake,  which  arc  two  things  I  could  not  often  meet  with  upon  Usher's  Quay. 
Prom  Norfolk  I  intend  goin;?  to  Baltimore  and  Washington  ;  if  possible,  also  (o 
Philadelphia  and  Boston,  from  thence  to  Halifax.  From  Halifax  I  hope  to  set 
sail,  in  the  cabin  where  I  now  write  this  letter,  for  the  dear  old  isles  of  the  Old 
World  again ;  and  I  think  it  prohable  that  twelve  months  from  the  time  I  left 
England,  will  veiy  nearly  see  me  on  its  coasts  once  more.  *  *  * 

Your  own, 

T.  M. 

EXERCISE. 
Somewhat  in  the  style  of  the  above  models,  write  a 

LEITEB'  OF   CEEDIT,  and  a  LETTER   Oi'   INTRODUCTIOiS". 


LESSON    XCVII. 

LETTERS       (continued). 

§  437.  Folding  and  Sealing. 

As  envelopes  are  now  generally  used  for  enclosing  letters,  the  most 
convenient  mode  of  folding  is  as  follows : — As  the  sheet  lies  before  you, 
turn  up  the  bottom  until  its  edge  exactly  lies  upon  the  edge  at  the  top, 
and  make  a  fold  in  the  middle.  The  sheet  is  now  in  an  oblong  form. 
Bring  the  side  at  your  right  hand  to  your  body,  and  fold  over  about  one 
third  of  the  letter  towards  the  top.  Finally,  turn  as  much  of  the  upper 
part  over  in  the  opposite  direction. 

Most  envelopes  are  self-scaling ;  that  is,  are  furnished  with  a  glutinous 
Eubstance,  which,  on  being  moistened,  answers  the  purpose  of  a  seal. 
When  this  convenience  is  wanting,  a  wafer  is  generally  used ;  in  which 
case,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  make  it  so  wet  as  to  spread  and  soil  the 
adjacent  parts.  The  use  of  the  wafer,  however,  implies  haste ;  and  those 
who  study  etiquette,  almost  without  exception,  give  the  preference  to 
sealing-wax.  Indeed,  according  to  Lord  Chesterfield,  the  use  of  the 
wafer  is  open  to  a  still  more  serious  objectien  than  the  mere  implying 
of  haste.  This  nobleman  is  said,  on  having  received  a  letter  sealed  with 
the  obnoxious  article  in  question,  to  have  remarked  with  some  indigna- 
tion, "  What  does  the  fellow  mean  by  sending  me  his  own  spittle?  " 

§  437.  What  are  now  generally  used  for  enclosing  letters  ?  Describe  the  most 
convenient  mode  of  folding.  With  what  are  most  envelopes  furnished  ?  When 
this  convenience  is  wanting,  what  is  generally  used?  In  the  use  of  the  wafer, 
what  must  be  avoided  ?  To  what  do  those  who  study  etiquette  give  the  prefer- 
pnce?  Why?  What  was  Lord  ChesterflekVs  objection  to  the  wafer?  If  the 
old-fashioned  mode  of  folding  is  followed,  what  must  be  avoided  in  putting  on  the 
Real? 


366  LETTERS. 

If  no  envelope  is  used,  but  the  old-fashioned  mode  of  folding  is  follow- 
ed, be  careful  that  the  seal,  whether  wax  or  wafer,  is  so  placed,  that  the 
opening  of  the  letter  will  not  render  any  part  of  the  writing  illegible. 

§  438.  Superscription. — The  superscription  of  a  letter  is 
the  direction  on  the  outside,  consisting  of  the  name  of  the 
person  addressed,  and  the  place  and  state  in  which  he  lives. 

In  directing,  be  careful  not  to  apply  to  a  person  two  titles  that  mean 
the  same  thing ;  as,  Mr.  Robert  Jones,  Esq. ;  Dr.  Edward  Sayre,  M.  D. 
In  the  first  example,  either«a/r.  or  Esq.  should  be  omitted  ;  afid,  in  the 
last,  either  Dr.  ov  M.  D 

When  a  letter  is  not  sent  by  mail,  but  is  taken  by  private  hand,  it  is 
customary  to  acknowledge  the  favor  by  placing  on  the  outside,  at  the 
lower  corner  on  the  left,  the  bearer's  name,  in  some  such  expression  as 

the  following  : — "  Politeness  of  Mr. "  /  "  Courtesy  of  Mrs. "  ; 

"  Favored  hy  Miss ". 

A  letter  of  introduction  should  contain,  in  the  same  position  as  the 
above,  the  name  of  the  person  introduced,  in  some  such  form  as  the  fol- 
lowing : — "  Introducing  Mr. "  ;  "  To  introduce  Mr. ". 

§  439.  A  short  letter  is  called  a  JVbte. 

Business  notes  have  the  same  form  as  letters.  Notes  of  invitation 
should  be  written  on  small  sheets,  called,  from  the  use  to  which  they 
arc  appropriated,  note-paper. 

It  is  customary,  in  writing  notes,  to  use  the  3d  person  instead  of  both 
the  1st  and  2d,  as  in  the  example  given  below.  Care  must  be  taken  to 
avoid  the  common  error  of  introducing  the  1st  or  2d  person,  after  the  3d 
has  been  thus  employed  ;  as  in  the  following:  "J/rs.  White  presents  Iter 
compliments  to  Mr.  Hoy,  and  solicits  the  pleasure  of  your  [instead  of  /''^l 
company  on  Monday  evening,  the  Aih  inst.^^ 

In  notes,  the  eldest  or  only  daughter  of  a  family  is  addressed  u.t 

Miss ,  no  other  name  being  used ;  when  there  are  other  daughters, 

they  are  distinguished  by  their  Christian  names.  If  Mr.  David  Temple, 
for  instance,  has  three  dau^ters,  Caroline,  Mary,  and  Cornelia,  the  first 
is  properly  addressed  as  Miss  Temple  ;  the  second,  as  Miss  Mary  Temple ; 
and  the  third,  as  Miss  Cornelia  Temple.     On  the  death  or  marriage  of 

§438.  What  Is  meant  by  the  Buperscriptlon  of  a  letter?  In  directing,  what 
must  wo  avoid  ?  Give  examples.  When  a  letter  Is  taken  by  prlvnto  hand,  how 
is  it  customary  to  acknowledge  the  favor  ?  What  should  a  letter  of  iutrodaction 
coutaiii  on  the  back,  besides  the  superscription  ? 

§  439.  Wlint  is  a  note  ?  What  form  have  business  notes  ?  On  what  sbonld 
notes  of  invitation  be  written  ?  In  what  person  docs  the  writer  speak  of  him- 
self?   In  what,  of  the  person  addressed?     Aj^inst  what  common  error  is  the 


NAEEATIVES.  367 

Caroline,  Mary  becomes  Miss  Temple ;  and,  on  that  of  both  Caroline  and 
Mary,  Cornelia  assumes  the  title  in  question. 

A  few  forms,  with  their  appropriate  replies,  may  be  of  service. 

INVITATIONS.  EEPLIES. 

No.  1.  '  No.  1. 

Mrs.  Dunn  presents  her  compliments  Mr.   and  Mrs.  Baker  accept,  with 

to  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Baker,  and  solicits  the  pleasure  Mrs.  Dunn's  polite  invitation 

pleasure  of  their  company  on  Tuesday  for  the  12th  inst. 
evening,  the  12th  inst. 

23  Broadway,  Jay  St., 

Sept.  8.  Sept.  9. 

No.  %.  No.  2.— A  Regret. 

Mr.  Bristow  requests  the  pleasure  Mr.  Marshall  regrets  that  a  previous 

of  the  Hon.  Mr.  Marshall's  company  engagement  will  deprive  him  of  the 

at  dinner  on  Wednesday  next,  at  4  pleasure  of  accepting  Mr.  Bristow's  in- 

o'clock.  vitation  to  dinner  for  Wednesday  next. 

T  Greene  St.,  Astor  House, 

Sept.  4.  Sept.  5. 

No.  3.  No.  Z.—A  Regret. 

Mr.  W.  F.  Cameron  presents  his  re-  Miss  Lydia  Bryant  presents  her  com- 

spects  to  Miss  Lydia  Bryant,  and  begs  pliments  to  Mr.  W.  F.  Cameron,  and 

that  he  may  be  allowed  to  wait  on  her  regrets  that  sickness  in  her  family  will 

this  evening  to  the  Italian  Opera.  prevent  her  acceptance  of  his  invita- 
tion for  this  evening. 

Liberty  St.,  Montague  Square, 

Sept.  3.  Sept.  3. 

EXERCISE. 

I.  "Write  a  letter  to  a  friend  in  the  city  from  some  country 

retreat  which  you  may  have  lately  visited,  remembering 

to  draw  up  a  preliminary  analysis,  and  to  follow  the 

models  in  the  last  lesson,  as  regards  date,  address,  &c. 

II.  Write  a  note  requesting  the  loan  of  a  volume  from  a 

friend. 

m.  "Write  a  note  accepting  a  friend's  invitation  to  tea. 


LESSON   XCVIII.- 

NARRATIVES. 

jj  -MO.  A  Narrative  is  a  composition  which  consists, 
for  t>ie  most  part,  of  an  accoimt  of  real  facts  or  events ;  but 

writer  cautioned  ?  In  notes,  how  is  the  eldest  daughter  of  a  family  addressed  ? 
How,  the  other  daughters  ?  Give  an  example.  On  the  death  or  marriage  of  the 
eldest  daughter,  how  is  the  second  daughter  addressed  ?  Give  the  form  of  a  note 
of  invitation,  and  the  reply. 


868  NAEEATIVES. 

into  which,  description,  argument,  exposition,  or  speculation, 
may  also  be  introduced. 

§  441.  Narratives  are  divided  into  Histories,  Biogi'aphics, 
Obituaries,  Voyages,  Travels,  and  Anecdotes. 

§  442.  A  History  is  an  account  of  facts  or  events  pertain- 
ing to  distinguished  places  or  objects,  to  communities, 
nations,  or  states.  A  detached  portion  of  history,  confined 
to  any  particular  era  or  event,  is  known  as  an  Historical 
Sketch. 

The  difference  between  a  history  and  annals  is,  that  the  latter  merely 
enumerate  events  in  chronological  order,  without  admitting  any  obser- 
vations on  the  part  of  the  writer ;  whereas  history  has  less  regard  to  the 
order  of  time,  and  allows  the  writer  to  investigate  causes  and  effects,  and 
to  introduce  other  matter  connected  with  the  subject. 

§  443.  A  histor}'-,  to  be  good,  must  be  true  and  interesting. 

The  first  essential  is  truth.  The  writer  must  present  a  faithful  ac- 
count of  what  has  taken  place,  or  his  work  is  valueless.  All  prejudice 
must  be  laid  aside.  Nothing  must  be  concealed,  nothing  exaggerated. 
All  available  sources  of  information  must  be  explored,  and  whatever 
bears  on  the  subject  in  hand  must  be  brought  to  light.  In  cases  of 
doubtful  or  conflicting  testimony,  the  rules  of  evidence  must  be  carefully 
weighed,  and  truth  insured  at  the  expense  of  every  other  consideration. 

In  the  second  place,  a  good  history  must  be  interesting.  Much  de- 
pends on  the  manner  of  the  historian.  Whatever  the  nature  of  the 
events  he  records,  however  great  his  research  or  accurate  his  state- 
ments, if  his  style  is  dry,  dull,  or  lifeless,  he  can  not  hope  to  gain  the 
favor  of  his  readers.  He  should  aim  at  simplicity,  clearness,  and 
strength;  but,  when  he  is  dwelling  on  those  uplendid  achievements 
which  at  intervals  have  spread  a  glorious  refulgence  over  the  page  of 
history,  with  his  subject  he  naturally  rises  to  sublimity. 

The  English  language  has  produced  many  historians  of  the  first  rank  ; 
among  whom,  Robertson,  Hume,  and  Gibbon,  are  worthy  of  special  men- 


§  440.  Wlint  is  a  narrative  ? 

§  441.  Into  what  arc  narratives  divided? 

§442.  What  ici  a  history?  Wliat  is  an  hletorical  sketch f  Define  the  difftr- 
ence  between  a  history  nnd  annals*. 

§  443.  What  two  thinfjH  are  essential  to  a  prood  history  ?  To  insure  tmth,  what 
must  the  writer  do  ?  What  in  the  second  essential  of  a  good  history  ?  On  what 
does  much  depend  ?  At  what  should  the  historian  aim  ?  When  docs  he  natu- 
rally rise  to  sublimity  ?     Muntlon  some  of  the  prominent  English  historians. 


NAERATIVES.  369 

tion.  American  literature  can  boast  of  names  equally  great, — Bancroft, 
Motley,  Hiidreth,  and  Prescott.  The  style  of  Prescott  is  justly  regard- 
ed as  a  model  of  historical  writing,  as  well  from  its  purity  and  beauty  as 
from  the  absorbing  interest  with  Avhich  it  invests  wliatever  he  treats. 

The  North  American  Review  makes  the  following  remarks  on  Pres- 
cott's  style,  which  are  worthy  of  being  added,  as  likely  to  convey  a  just 
idea  of  what  a  good  historical  style  should  be  : — • 

"Mr.  Prescott  is  not  a  mannerist  in  style,  and  does  not  deal  in  elaborate,  an- 
tithetical,  nicely-balanced,  periods.  His  sentences  are  not  cast  in  the  same  arti- 
ficial mould,  nor  is  there  a  perpetual  recurrence  of  the  same  forms  of  expression, 
as  in  the  writings  of  Johnson  or  Gibbon  ;  nor  have  they  that  satin-like  smooth- 
ness and  gloss  for  which  Robertson  is  so  remarkable.  The  dignified  simplicity 
of  his  style  is  still  farther  removed  from  anything  like  pertness,  smartness,  or 
affectation ;  from  tawdry  giim-flowers  of  rhetoric,  and  brass-gilt  ornaments ; 
from  those  fantastic  tricks  with  language  which  bear  the  same  relation  to  good 
writing  that  vaulting  and  tumbling  do  to  walking.  It  is  perspicuous,  flexible, 
and  natural,  sometimes  betraying  a  want  of  high  finish,  but  always  manly,  al- 
ways correct,— never  feeble,  and  never  inflated.  He  does  not  darkly  insinuate 
statements,  or  leave  his  reader  to  infer  facts.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  of  his  style, 
that  it  has  no  marked  character  at  all.  Without  ever  offending  the  mind  or  the 
ear,  it  has  nothing  that  attracts  observation  to  it,  simply  as  a  style.  It  is  a  trans- 
parent medium,  through  which  we  see  the  form  and  movement  of  the  writer's 
mind.  In  this  respect,  we  may  compare  it  with  the  manners  of  a  well-bred  gen- 
tleman, which  have  nothing  so  peculiar  as  to  awaken  attention,  and  which,  from 
their  very  ease  and  simplicity,  enable  the  essential  qualities  of  the  understauding 
»nd  character  to  be  more  clearly  discerned." 

§  444.  A  Biography  is  an  account  of  the  life  of  an  indi- 
vidual. When  the  chief  incidents  only  are  touched  upon,  it 
is  called  a  Biographical  Sketch.  The  style  recommended  in 
the  last  paragraph  for  history  is  also  appropriate  to  biogra- 
phy. The  writer  should  avoid  a  tendency  to  minuteness  of 
uninteresting  detail,  and  exaggerated  praise  of  the  person 
of  whose  life  he  is  treating. 

§  445.  The  third  variety  of  narrative  is  the  Obituary, 
which  is  a  notice  of  a  person's  death,  accompanied  with  a 
brief  sketch  of  his  life  and  character.  Obituaries  are  gener- 
ally written  by  Mends  of  the  deceased,  in  whom,  as  in  the 

Mention  those  distinguished  in  American  literature.  What  ia  said  of  Prescott'S 
style  ?    In  what  terms  does  the  North  American  Review  speak  of  it? 

§  444.  What  is  a  biography  ?  What  is  a  biographical  sketch  ?  What  style  is 
appropriate  to  biography  ?  Against  what  tendency  should  the  biographer  be  on 
his  guard  ? 

§  445.  What  is  the  third  variety  of  narrative  ?  What  is  an  obituary  ?  By  whom 
are  obituaries  generally  written  ?  What,  therefore,  is  the  natural  tendency  in  the 

16* 


370  NAREATIVES. 

biographer,  there  is  a  natural  tendency  to  exaggerate  the 
abiUties  and  virtues  of  those  whose  memory  they  would  pre- 
serve. Such  exaggeration  fails  of  its  object,  being  readily 
detected,  and  in  that  case  not  only  losing  its  effect,  but 
actually  offending  the  reader.  In  this,  as  in  every  other 
species  of  narrative,  truth  should  be  the  primary  object. 

§  446.  Travels  constitute  the  fourth  kind  of  narrative. 
They  may  be  defined  as  an  account  of  incidents  that  have 
happened,  and  observations  that  have  been  made,  during  a 
journey ;  and  form  one  of  the  most  entertaining  and  popular 
departments  of  literature. 

Narration  constitutes  the  greater  part  of  a  book  of  travels ;  but  de- 
scription and  the  other  elements  of  composition  may  also  be  introduced, 
in  a  greater  or  less  degree.  Keen  powers  of  observation  are  essential  to 
the  writer  in  this  department  of  composition.  His  style  should  be  varied 
to  suit  the  different  objects  and  incidents  he  is  called  on  successively  to 
describe;  ornamented  or  simple,  sublime  or  sparkling  with  humor,  as 
occasion  may  require.  To  awaken  interest  in  his  readers,  he  should  se- 
lect new  and  important  subjects  only,  and  exhibit  them  in  their  most 
striking  light. 

§  447.  The  fifth  class  comprises  Voyages ;  which  resem- 
ble travels  in  every  respect,  except  that  the  incidents  they 
relate  are  such  as  have  happened  to  one  passing  by  water 
between  countries  remote  from  each  other.  As  regards 
style,  the  same  principles  apply  as  in  the  case  of  travels. 

§  448.  The  last  variety  of  narrative  we  shall  here  mention, 
is  the  Anecdote.  This  term  is  derived  from  two  Greek 
words  (a  privative,  and  t-/c(Jorof,  given  out^  viade  public)  ; 
and  was  originally  appUed  to  an  historical  fact  not  generally 

writers  of  obitnariea  ?  What  is  said  of  such  exaggeration  ?  In  all  the  varieties 
of  narrative,  what  shoiild  be  the  primary  object  ? 

§  440.  What  constitute  the  fourth  kind  of  narrative  ?  \\liat  is  meant  by  trav- 
els f  What  constitutes  the  greater  part  of  a  book  of  travels  ?  What  else  may  bo 
introduced  ?  What  is  essential  to  success  in  the  writing  of  travels  ?  What  stylo 
is  most  effective  for  them?  What  subjects  should  be  selected  by  the  writers  of 
travels  ? 

§  447.  What  Is  the  fifth  division  of  narratives  ?  In  what  do  voyages  differ 
from  travels  ?    What  style  is  recommended  for  voyages  ? 

g  448.  What  is  the  last  variety  of  narrative  mentioned  ?    From  what  is  th» 


NAEKATIVES.  3Yl 

known,  when  promulgated  for  the  first  time.  As  now  used, 
however,  this  term  signifies  an  account  of  an  interesting 
detached  incident,  particularly  one  connected  with  the  career 
of  some  distinguished  person.  The  point  of  an  anecdote 
should  not  be  obscured  by  too  many  words. 

§  449.  The  only  example  it  is  thought  necessary  to  pre- 
sent, is  one  of  the  anecdote.  The  other  varieties  form  so 
considerable  a  jDortion  of  the  current  literature  of  the  day, 
that  the  student  can  hardly  go  amiss  for  suitable  models. 

ANECDOTE   OF   DR.    FRANKLIN. 

Long  after  the  victories  of  Washington  over  the  French  and  English  had  made 
his  name  familiar  to  all  Europe,  Dr.  Franklin  chanced  to  dine  with  the  English 
and  French  ambassadors ;  when,  as  nearly  as  the  precise  words  can  he  recol- 
lected, the  following  toasts  were  drunk  :— 

"  England— The  ^wn.  whose  bright  beams  enlighten  and  fnictify  the  remotest 
comers  of  the  earth." 

The  French  ambassador,  filled  with  national  pride,  but  too  polite  to  dispute 
the  previous  toast,  drank  the  following  :— 

"  Fbance— The  Moon  whose  mild,  steady,  and  cheering  rays,  are  the  delight  of 
all  nations,  consoling  them  in  darkness,  and  making  their  dreariness  beautiful." 

Dr.  Franklin  then  arose,  and,  with  his  usual  dignified  simplicity,  said  :— 

"  George  Washington— The  Joshua  who  commanded  the  Sun  and  Moon  to 
stand  still,  and  they  obeyed  him." 

EXERCISE. 

I.  Write,  in  your  own  language,  an  Anecdote  of  Richard 
the  Lion-hearted. 
II.  Write,  in  your  own  language,  an  Anecdote  of  Philip  of 
Macedon,  from  the  following  heads : — 

A  Macedonian  soldier  had  so  distinguished  himself  by  extraoi'dinary  acts  of 
valor  as  to  gain  the  favor  of  King  Philip  and  many  marks  of  royal  approbation. 

This  soldier  was  once  shipwrecked ;  and,  being  cast  ashore  with  scarcely  a  sign 
of  life,  was  revived  only  by  the  care  and  tenderness  of  a  Macedonian,  whose  lands 
were  contiguous  to  the  sea,  and  who  hastened  to  his  relief.  Placed  in  this  good 
man's  bed,  carefully  nursed,  and  freely  supplied  with  the  necessaries  of  life,  the 
shipwrecked  soldier  found  himself,  at  the  expiration  of  forty  days,  suflaciently  re- 
covered to  be  able  to  resume  his  journey.  He  left  with  loud  protestations  of 
gratitude  to  his  kind  host ;  and,  informing  the  latter  of  his  influence  with  the 
king,  promised  that  his  first  care  should  be  to  secure  from  the  royal  bounty  a 
munificent  reward  for  one  who  had  so  generously  befriended  him  in  time  of  need. 

word  anecdote  derived  ?  To  what  was  this  term  originally  applied  T  As  now 
used,  what  does  it  signify  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  too  many  words  in  an  anecdote  ? 


372  EXERCISE   IN   BIOGEAPHr. 

In  reality,  however,  he  was  filled  with  base  cupidity,  and  nngrateftilly  reeolvcd 
to  procure  for  himself  the  grounds  of  his  benefactor.  Shortly  after,  he  presented 
himself  before  the  king ;  and,  recounting  his  misfortunes  and  at  the  same  time 
his  services,  begged  that  Philip  would  give  him  an  estate,  and  specified  that  of 
his  entertainer  as  one  which  would  be  peculiarly  acceptable.  Ignorant  of  the 
circumstances,  Philip  inconsiderately  granted  the  request. 

The  soldier  immediately  returned,  and,  driving  out  hui  urcserver  with  violence, 
seized  on  the  property  in  question.  The  latter,  stung  to  the  heart  by  this  un- 
paralleled ingratitude,  boldly  approached  the  king,  and  laid  the  whole  case  before 
him.  Philip,  finding,  on  examination,  the  story  to  be  true,  lamented  his  o^vn  in- 
considerate act,  ordered  the  property  to  be  restored,  made  the  suffering  com- 
plainant a  munificent  present,  and,  seizing  the  base  soldier,  confiscated  his  goods, 
and  had  the  words  the  ungrateful  guest  branded  on  his  forehead. 
[Close  with  remarks  on  the  king^e  justice.] 


LESSON    XCIX. 

EXERCISE     IN     BIOGRAPHY, 

From  the  following  points,  draw  up  two  Biograpliical 
Sketches,  one  of  Alfred  the  Great,  and  the  other  of  William 
the  Conqueror.  If  further  information  is  needed,  any  his* 
tory  will  supply  it. 

ALFRED  THE  GREAT. 

introduction  —  Responsibility  resting  on  kings  —  How 
much  the  happiness  or  misery  of  their  subjects  depends  on 
them — How  some  kings  abuse  their  opportunities  of  doing 
good,  while  others  are  incalculable  blessings  to  the  lands 
they  rule — How  it  was  in  the  case  of  Alfred. 

Born  849,  at  Wantage,  in  Berkshire — son  of  Ethelwolf ; 
his  mother  was  Osburgh,  daughter  of  Oslac,  butler  to  Ethel- 
wolf,  but  well  descended. 

His  early  education  neglected — his  natural  thirst  for 
knowledge — skilled  in  bodily  exercises. 

His  enemies,  the  Danes ;  i.  e.  the  people  of  Scandinavia 
(Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Norway).  Commander  of  his 
brother's  armies — recommends  a  navy. 


Exercise  in  biogeaphy.  ^^73 

Losses  and  reverses  of  fortune — anecdote  of  the  burnt 
cakes — visit  in  disguise  to  the  Danish  camp — defeat  of  the 
Danes — baptism  of  Guthrum — Alfred's  power  increases — 
peace  during  the  last  two  years  of  his  reign — dies  901. 

His  character — learning — piety — habits — political  insti- 
tutions— jiatronage  of  learned  men — division  of  England 
into  counties,  hundreds,  tithings,  &c. 

'■  WILLIAM   THE    CONQUEROR. 

Introduction — Some  kings  seem  to  have  been  chosen  by 
Providence  as  instruments  for  effecting  mighty  changes  in 
nations — the  case  with  William  the  Conqueror — intermixture 
of  Normans  with  Saxons  produced  the  English  nation  of  the 
present  day. 

Whose  son  ? — his  title  to  the  English  throne — his  rival 
— the  invasion  of  England — the  number  of  William's  army 
— where  he  landed. 

Harold's  title  to  the  crown — proposals  made  by  William 
to  Harold  the  night  before  the  battle. 

The  battle  and  its  circumstances — death  of  Harold,  and 
victory  of  William,  14th  October,  1066 — extinction  of  the 
Saxon  rule — submission  of  the  clergy. 

Coronation — oath — return  to  Normandy — effects  of  his 
absence — conspiracy  of  the  English — return  of  William,  and 
treatment  of  the  rebels  and  English  clergy. 

Destined  to  vexation  and  trouble — his.  children — anec- 
dote of  their  quarrels. 

Insurrection  in  Normandy — conduct  of  the  queen,  daugh- 
ter of  Baldwin,  Earl  of  Flanders — rebellion  quelled  by  an 
English  army. 

Death  of  Queen  Matilda — insurrection  in  Maine  aided 
by  the  King  of  France. 

Invasion  of  France  by  William — accident  which  caused 
the  death  of  the  king  in  1087. 

Character — changes  produced  in  England  during  his 
reign — relations  between  the  Saxons  and  the  Normans — 
changes  in  the  language. 


S74:  FICTION. 

LESSON   C. 

FICTION. 

§  450.  Fiction  is  that  branch  of  composition  which  con- 
sists in  the  narration  of  imaginary  incidents.  With  this 
narration,  descriptions  of  material  objects,  of  natural  scenery, 
and  of  persons,  are  generally  combined. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  difference  between  the  narrative  and  the  fic- 
tion lies  in  the  character  of  the  incidents  they  respectively  relate ;  the 
former  being  limited  to  such  as  are  true,  while  those  of  the  latter  are 
created  either  wholly  or  in  part  by  the  imagination.  We  say  in  part, 
for  fictions  may  be  founded  on  fact,  historical  events  being  often  taken 
as  the  basis  of  such  compositions.  If  the  details  have  been  invented  by 
the  author,  if  imaginary  conversations,  characters,  or  scenes,  are  intro- 
duced, it  is  sufficient  to  constitute  a  fiction. 

§  451.  Tlie  chain  of  incidents  on  which  a  fiction  is  founded, 
is  called  its  Plot.  A  plot  should  not  be  glaringly  improb- 
able ;  it  should  be  moral,  consistent  in  all  its  parts,  and  so 
managed  as  to  keep  alive  the  reader's  interest  throughout. 
Tliis  is  often  insured  by  reserving  some  important  denoue- 
ment for  the  last. 

§  452.  Next  to  a  good  plot,  nothing  is  more  necessary 
to  success  in  fictitious  composition  than  a  striking  and  life- 
like portraiture  of  character.  Individual  peculiarities  of  mind 
and  manners  must  be  carried  out.  "W^iatever  the  person- 
ages introduced  say  or  do,  must  strictly  harmonize  with  the 
character  assigned  them  by  the  writer. 

§  453.  Fictitious  compositions  constitute  one  of  the  most 

§  450.  What  is  Action  ?  With  this  narration,  what  are  generally  combined  f 
What  constitutes  the  diflForcnce  between  a  narrative  and  a  fiction  ?  On  what  may 
fictions  be  founded  ?  What  are  often  talien  as  a  basis  for  them  ?  In  such  cases, 
what  is  snfflclent  to  constitute  a  fiction  ? 

§  451.  What  is  meant  by  the  plot  of  a  fictitious  composition  ?  What  is  essential 
with  respect  to  a  plot  ?   How  is  the  reader's  interest  often  kept  alive  to  the  end  ? 

§  452.  Next  to  a  good  plot,  what  is  most  important  to  success  in  fictitious  com- 
position ?    Wliat  Is  meant  by  this  ? 

§  453.  Explain  how  fictitious  compositions  exert  a  powerftil  inflaenco  oo  th« 


FICTION.  375 

important  departments  of  literature.  Obtaining  greater  cur- 
rency than  almost  any  other  kinds  of  writing,  and  furnishing 
food,  as  they  do,  to  a  great  extent,  for  the  imaginations  of 
the  young,  they  exert  a  powerful  influence  on  the  morals 
and  taste  of  a  nation.  That  tliis  influence  should  be  cast 
on  the  side  of  morality  and  truth,  is  all-important. 

In  the  hands  of  judicious  writers  who  feel  the  responsibility  of  their 
position,  fiction  becomes  an  important  instrmnent  of  good.  It  furnishes 
one  of  the  best  channels  for  conveying  instruction,  for  showing  the  errors 
into  which  we  are  betrayed  by  our  passions,  for  rendering  virtue  attrac- 
tive and  vice  odious.  Accordingly,  we  find  that  the  wisest  of  men,  in 
all  ages,  have  used  fables  and  parables  as  vehicles  of  moral  instruction. 
It  must  be  observed,  however,  that,  while  fiction,  as  shown  above,  may 
be  an  effective  instrument  of  good,  it  is  no  less  powerful  an  agent  of  evil, 
when  diverted  from  its  proper  use,  and  made  to  teach  a  false  moral  or 
pander  to  the  baser  passions.  No  ordinary  responsibility,  therefore, 
rests  on  the  writer  in  this  department  of  composition. 

§  454.  The  principal  forms  in  which  fiction  appears  are 
Tales,  Novels,  Romances,  and  Dialogues. 

The  first  three  of  these  are  closely  related ;  the  differ- 
ence between  them  is  as  follows.  The  Tale  is  short  and 
simple,  and  admits  of  comparatively  few  characters ;  it  is 
told  without  much  regard  to  keeping  the  reader  in  suspense, 
and  often  has  but  little  depth  of  plot  or  importance  of  de- 
nouement. The  Novel  and  the  Romance,  on  the  contrary, 
admit  of  every  possible  variety  of  character,  and  afford  the 
greatest  scope  for  exciting  the  interest  of  the  reader  by  a 
rapid  succession  of  events,  an  involvement  of  interests,  and 
the  unravelling  of  intricacies  of  plot.  The  Novel,  though 
thus  like  the  Romance  in  its  main  features,  differs  from  the 
latter  in  that  it  aims  at  the  delineation  of  social  manners,  or 
the  development  of  a  story  founded  on  the  incidents  of  or- 
dinary life,  or  both  together ;  whereas  the  Romance  is  based 

morals  and  taste  of  a  nation.  In  the  hands  of  judicious  writers,  what  does  fiction 
\)ecome  ?  Show  how  it  is  made  an  instrument  of  good.  On  the  other  hand,  show 
how  it  may  be  attended  with  the  most  pernicious  effects. 

§  454.  What  are  the  principal  forms  in  which  fiction  appears  ?    What  are  the 
distingniehing  features  of  the  tale,  the  novel,  and  the  romance  ?    What  word  is 


37G  i^icnoN* 

on  incidents,  not  merely  improbable,  but  altogether  wild  and 
out  of  the  common  course  of  life  at  the  present  day, — on 
legends  of  bygone  ages,  heroic  exploits  of  former  times,  su- 
pernatural events,  and  vagaries  of  the  imagination  in  gen* 
eral.  In  all  three,  the  plot  may  be  unfolded,  at  least  in  a 
measure,  by  means  of  conversations  between  the  characters 
introduced. 

The  word  story  is  commonly  used  as  synonymous  with  tale.  Properly 
speaking,  however,  this  term  is  applied  to  any  narrative  of  past  events, 
real  or  fictitious.  We  speak  of  "  the  story  of  Joseph  ",  and  "  the  story 
of  the  Forty  Thieves  ". 

A  Dialogue  is  a  fictitious  conversation  between  two  or 
more  persons. 

Dialogues  have  been  used  with  great  success,  particularly  by  the 
ancients,  as  a  convenient  form  for  the  discussion  of  serious  topics  con- 
nected with  criticism,  morals,  and  philosophy.  Well  conducted,  they 
are  peculiarly  entertaining  to  the  reader  ;  as  they  not  only  afford  him  a 
full  view  of  the  subject  in  all  its  relations,  but  at  the  same  time  please 
him  with  their  easy  conversational  style,  and  their  display  of  well-sup- 
ported characters.  But,  to  be  thus  effective,  a  dialogue  must  show  in  a 
striking  light  the  character  and  manners  of  the  several  speakers,  must 
adapt  to  these  their  thoughts  and  expressions  respectively, — in  a  word, 
must  be  a  spirited  representation  of  a  real  conversation. 

In  this  difficult  branch  of  composition,  few  have  equalled  Plato,  in 
whose  mind  soundness  of  judgment  seems  to  have  been  combined  in  an 
unprecedented  degree  with  richness  of  imagination.  Socrates  is  one  of  his 
prominent  characters.  This  sage,  whom  he  reveres  as  a  philosopher  and 
loves  as  his  master,  is  represented  as  conversing  with  the  sophists  on 
various  topics  ;  as  asking  them  questions  which  bear  on  the  point  with- 
out their  perceiving  it,  founding  new  interrogatories  on  the  answers  re- 
ceived, and  thus  leading  them  on  until  they  suddenly  find  themselves  in- 
volved in  difficulties  and  absurdities,  and  are  obliged,  by  the  admissions 
they  have  made,  to  own  the  falsity  of  their  own  position  and  the  correct- 


commonly  need  as  pynonymous  with  talef  Wliat  twofold  Piijiiiftcation  has  thla 
term  story  f  Illustrato  each.  Wliat  is  a  dialogic?  For  what  have  dialogues 
been  used?  What  renders  them,  when  well  conducted,  peculiarly  entertaining 
to  the  reader?  To  be  effective,  what  is  essential  with  respect  to  a  dialogue? 
Who  Is  distinguished  for  his  skill  in  this  department  of  composition  ?  Who  con- 
Ptitutes  one  of  Plato's  prominent  characters  ?  Describe  the  Socratic  mode  of 
reasoning  as  represented  in  Plato's  dialogues.  What  is  meant  by  a  Socratic  dia- 
logue/   What  other  kind  of  dialogue  iu  mentioned?    What  ancient  writer  ex* 


FICTION.  377 

cess  of  their  adversary's.     This  mode  of  reasoning  has  hence  been  called 
Socratic  ;  and  a  Socratic  dialogue  is  one  in  which  it  is  pursued. 

There  are  also  lighter  dialogues,  in  which  wit  and  humor  play  an  im- 
portant part,  and  which  are  designed  principally  to  satirize  the  follies  of 
the  day.  These,  Lucian,  among  the  ancients,  carried  to  a  high  degree  of 
perfection.  In  modern  times,  we  have  few  specimens  either  of  the  lighter 
or  the  graver  kind,  that  can  be  said  to  possess  superior  merit ;  the  diffi- 
culty of  this  style  of  composition  seems  to  have  brought  it  into  disfavor 
with  the  majority  of  writers.  • 

§  455.  An  extended  dialogue,  consisting  of  different 
scenes  accommodated  to  action,  and  participated  in  by  a 
number  of  characters,  who  appear  and  disappear  at  intervals 
as  may  be  necessary  for  the  development  of  the  plot,  is  called 
a  Drama.  Dramas  are  written  in  either  prose  or  poetry,  but 
generally  the  latter ;  for  Avhich  reason,  we  shall  at  present 
postpone  their  consideration. 

§  456.  We  subjoin  a  specimen  of  the  tale, — one,  how- 
ever, in  which,  by  reason  of  its  brevity,  there  is  necessarily 
but  little  plot.  Li  tales  of  any  length,  description  may  be 
introduced  with  effect^ 

CARDINAL  Richelieu's  guest. 

Cardinal  de  Richelieu  has  always  been  considered  a  great  minister,  and  on 
some  accounts  he  well  deserved  the  name.  He  rendered  an  immense  seiTice  to 
monarchy  in  dispatching  the  last  heads  of  the  feudal  hydra,  and  literature  owes 
him  much  for  the  establishment  of  the  French  Academy.  Although  himself  but 
an  indifferent  writer,  he  was  ever  ready  to  encourage  the  arts,  and  paid  liberally 
for  the  efforts  of  others.  The  Cardinal,  however,  could  not  endure  that  his  acts 
should  be  made  the  subject  of  comment,  particularly  since  some  of  them  were 
cf  a  character  not  calculated  to  elicit  very  warm  commendation  from  lovers  of 
morality.  The  more  powerful,  indeed,  occasionally  indulged  in  freedom  of 
speech ;  but  woe  to  the  humble  individual  that  was  indiscreet  enough  publicly 
to  find  fault  with  the  peccadilloes  of  his  Eminence.  With  cnch  he  had  a  sum- 
mary way  of  privately  dealing  which  effectually  closed  their  lips  for  the  future. 

M.  Dumont,  a  small  merchant  of  the  Rue  St.  Denis,  received  one  morning  a 
letter  dated  Rueil,  a  little  village  on  the  outskirts  of  Paris,  where  the  Cardinal 
had  a  country-seat.  This  letter  contained  an  invitation  to  supper  for  the  next 
day  with  his  Eminence.  M.  Dumont  could  not  believe  his  eyes  ;  he  read  the  let- 
ter several  times,  looked  at  the  direction,  and  finally  concluded  that  he  must  be 
indeed  the  person  to  whom  it  was  addressed.    Amazed  beyond  expression,  he 


celled  in  it  ?    What  has  brought  this  kind  of  composition  into  disfavor  with  the 
majority  of  writers  ? 

§  455.  What  is  a  drama  ?    Are  dramas  generally  written  in  prose,  or  poetiy  ? 


378  FICTION. 

caHed  his  wife  and  daughters,  to  communicate  to  them  hia  good  fortune.    Yon 
may  imagine  the  joy  and  pride  of  the  three  women  I 

About  four  o'clock  he  mounted  his  horse,  and  started  for  Rneil.  He  had  scarcely 
passed  the  suburbs,  when  the  clouds  assumed  a  threatening  look,  and  the  sound 
of  distant  thunder  announced  the  approach  of  a  violent  storm.  The  merchant, 
having  neglected  to  provide  himself  with  a  cloak,  doubled  the  speed  of  bis  horse. 
But  the  storm  travelled  faster  than  his  eteed ;  flashes  of  lightning  succeeded 
each  other  with  frightful  rapidity,  and  the  rain  fell  in  torrents.  Assailed  by  the 
tempest,  our  hero  put  his  horse  to  the  gallop ;  but  at  length,  unable  to  continue 
his  journey,  he  stopped  at  a  small  tavern  in  Manterre.  lie  alighted,  sent  his  horse 
to  the  stable,  and  took  refuge  in  a  low  room,  where  the  servant  lighted  a  blazing 
fire  to  dry  his  clothes.  "While  he  was  warming  himself,  the  door  opened,  and 
another  person,  also  drenched  with  rain,  entered,  and  seated  himself  in  the  op- 
posite corner. 

The  two  travellers  looked  at  each  other  for  some  time  in  silence.  At  last,  M. 
Dumont  addressed  his  companion  with  the  words :  "  What  detestable  weather ! " 

"It  is  very  bad,  indeed,"  replied  the  stranger.  "But  it  is  only  a  shower, 
which,  I  hope,  will  soon  pass  over." 

"Hear,"  continued  M.  Dumont;  "the  storm  increases;  peals  of  thunder 
shake  the  house ;  the  rain  falls  in  torrents :  and  yet  I  must  go  on." 

"Sir,"  said  the  unknown,  "it  must  be  important  business  that  can  induce 
yon  to  proceed  on  your  journey  in  this  weather." 

"  It  is,  indeed,"  said  Dumont ;  "  I  will  tell  you :  it  is  no  secret.  I  am  invited 
to  a  supper,  this  evening,  with  the  Cardinal  de  Richelieu." 

"  Ahl  I  know  it  is  a  difllcult  matter  to  decline  such  an  invitation.  But  you 
have  still  a  long  way  to  go,  and  how  can  you  present  yourself  before  his  Emi- 
nence in  the  state  in  which  you  now  are  ?  " 

"His  Eminence  will,  perhaps,  appreciate  my  eagerness  to  accept  his  kind 
invitation." 

"  If  I  did  not  fear  to  appear  indiscreet,  I  would  ask  you  if  you  ever  had  any 
thing  to  do  with  the  Cardinal." 

"  Nothing  at  all.  I  must  even  say  that  I  can  not  account  for  the  favor  which 
I  have  received." 

"  The  Cardinal  is  very  jealous  of  his  authority ;  he  does  not  like  to  have  his 
actions  judged.  One  word  sometimes  is  sufficient  to  excite  his  suspicion ;  think 
well.    Have  you  never  given  his  Eminence  any  cause  for  complaint  against  you  ?  " 

"  I  think  not.  I  have  been  constantly  occupied  with  my  business.  I  have  no 
interest  in  what  they  call  politics.  However,  I  believe  that,  before  two  or  three 
friends  only,  I  censured  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Montmorency,  and  you  would 
have  done  the  same,  had  your  grandfather  been  the  steward  of  that  illustrious 
noble," 

"  My  dear  sir,  you  look  like  an  honest  man.  You  have  inspired  me  with  much 
interest  for  you ;  will  you  listen  to  me,  then  ?    Do  not  go  to  RueiL" 

"  Not  go  to  Rueil !    I  shall  set  out  this  instant,  In  spite  of  the  storm." 

"One  word  more,  my  friend,  for  your  position  interests  mo  exceedingly; 
you  really  believe  that  tlie  Cardinal  is  expecting  you  to  supper?  Well,  let  me 
undeceive  you.    Yon  are  expected,  it  is  true,— but  to  be  hung  I  " 

"  Oh,  mcrciftil  Heaven  !  what  do  you  mean  ?    It  Is  impossible." 

"  I  tell  you  again,"  said  the  stranger,  "  to  be  hung  I  " 

At  these  words,  Dumont,  shuddering  with  terror,  drew  himself  near  to  tht 
unknown. 

"  For  Heaven's  sake,  how  do  you  know  ? " 

"lam  sure  of  it." 


ESSAYS.  379 

"  Bnt  what  have  I  done  to  deserve  such  a  fate  ? " 

"  I  don't  know ;  hut  I  am  sure  of  what  I  say,  for  I  am  the  one  who  has  been 
sent  for  to  hang  you." 

The  poor  merchant,  pale  as  a  corpse,  drew  hack  several  steps,  and,  scarcely 
able  to  speak,  said: 

"  Pray  tell  me,  sir— who  are  you  ?  " 

"  The  hangman  of  Paris,  called  by  his  Eminence  to  dispatch  you.  Think  of 
the  service  I  have  rendered  you,  and  remember  that  the  least  indiscretion  on 
your  part  will  be  my  ruin." 

The  merchant  remounted  his  horse  without  waiting  for  the  storm  to  abate ; 
and,  drenched  to  the  bone,  he  reached  Paris.  Instead  of  repairing  to  his  own 
house,  he  sought  shelter  with  an  old  friend,  to  whom  he  related  his  adventure 
and  wonderful  escape.  With  the  aid  of  money,  he  obtained  a  passport,  under  a 
false  name ;  and,  well  disguised,  started  for  England.  There  he  remained  till 
the  death  of  the  Cardinal,  which  occurred  two  years  after. 

EXEKCISE. 

Write  a  Tale,  founded  on  incidents  of  your  own  inven- 
tion, and  conveying  the  moral  that  appearances  are  deceitful^ 


LESSON    CI. 

ESSAYS. 

§  457.  Essays  constitute  the  fourth  division  of  prose 
compositions. 

The  term  essay  literally  signifies  an  attempt ;  and  is  gen- 
erally apphed,  in  literature,  to  productions  in  which  a  writer 
briefly  sets  forth  his  views  on  the  leading  points  connected 
with  a  subject,  without  pausing  to  consider  them  carefully 
or  minutely.  Some  writers,  hov/ever,  in  a  spirit  of  modesty, 
have  thought  proper  to  characterize  as  essays  their  most  pro- 
found and  elaborate  compositions,  following  the  example  of 
Locke  in  liis  celebrated  "  Essay  on  the  Human  Understand- 
ing ".  The  term  has  thus  come  to  have  a  widely  extended 
signification ;  and  is  now  equally  applicable  to  the  crude  ex- 

§  457.  What  constitute  the  fourth  division  of  prose  compositions  ?  What  does 
the  term  €ssa2/ literally  signify  ?  To  what  is  it  generally  applied  in  literature? 
What  have  some  writers,  in  a  spirit  of  modesty,  used  this  term  to  denote  ?  What 
is  the  consequence,  as  regards  the  present  acceptation  of  the  word  essay  f  What, 
for  the  most  part,  constitute  the  themes  of  essays  ? 


380  ESSAYS. 

crcise  of  the  school-boy  and  the  sublimest  effort  of  the  man 
of  letters. 

The  themes  of  essays  are,  for  the  most  part,  either  ab- 
stract subjects  or  topics  connected  with  life  and  manners. 

§  458.  The  term  essay  being  thus  comprehensive,  the 
compositions  so  designated  are  susceptible  of  division  into 
a  variety  of  classes  distinguished  hy  particular  names ;  the 
principal  of  which  are  Editorials,  Reviews,  Treatises,  Tracts, 
Dissertations,  and  Disquisitions. 

An  Editorial  is  a  short  essay  on  some  current  topic  of  the 
day,  presented  in  a  newspaper  or  periodical  as  embodying 
the  views  of  its  conductors. 

A  Review  is  a  critical  essay  on  some  literary  production, 
in  which  its  beauties  and  defects  are  pointed  out. 

A  Treatise  is  a  methodical  and  elaborate  essay,  generally 
on  some  ethical,  political,  or  speculative,  subject. 

A  Tract  is  a  brief  essay,  generally  on  some  religious  or 
political  theme,  called  forth  by  the  events  of  the  day,  and 
seldom  possessing  sufficient  general  interest  to  survive  the 
occasion  which  gave  it  birth. 

A  Dissertation  is  an  essay  of  some  length,  investigating, 
in  all  its  relations,  some  disputed  subject ;  and  written,  not 
for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  given  position,  but  of  fairly 
presenting  the  arguments  on  all  sides,  and  arriving  at  the 
truth. 

A  Disquisition  has  the  same  object  in  view  as  a  disserta- 
tion,— that  is,  the  eliciting  of  truth ;  it  differs  from  the  latter 
only  in  being  more  brief,  and  being  confined  more  strictly  to 
the  particular  point  under  consideration. 

§  459.  In  the  conduct  of  the  essay,  great  latitude  is 
allowed.  Its  subjects  arc  so  various  that  no  uniform  mode 
of  treatment  can  be  recommended  or  followed.     The  heads 


§  458.  Ennmerntc  the  classes  into  which  ofisnj's  are  divided.  WTint  is  an  edi- 
torial ?  a  review?  a  treatise  ?  a  tract  ?  a  dissertation  ?  a  disquisition  ? 

§  450.  Wliat  is  allowed  in  the  conduct  of  an  essay  ?  Wliy  can  not  a  uniform  modo 
of  treatment  be  followed  T    According  to  what  will  the  heads  to  be  taken  differ  ? 


ESSAYS.  381 

to  be  taken  will  of  course  differ  according  to  the  character 
of  the  topics  treated ;  yet,  in  most  compositions  of  this  class, 
the  following  will  be  found  appropriate..  They  may  be  am- 
plified according  to  the  suggestions  in  §  409. 

I.  Introduction. — Suggestions  respecting  it  will  be  found  in  §  405, 
406,  407,  408. 

II.  Definition. 

III.  Origin. 

IV.  History. 

V.  Historical  Illustrations. 

VI.  Advantages.     Similes  and  Quotations. 
VII.  Disadvantages.     Similes  and  Quotationa. 
VIII.  Practical  Conclusion. 

If  the  subject  is  one  on  which  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion,  it  may 
be  well,  in  place  of  the  fourth  and  the  fifth  head,  given  above,  to  sub- 
stitute the  following : — 
IV.  Statement  of  Views. 

I.  General  view.    What  has  been  thought  on  this  subject  by  all 

nations,  and  in  all  ages  ? 
II.  Local  view.     What  opinions  are  entertained  on  it  in  the  age 
and  country  to  which  the  writer  belongs  ? 
Or  the  following  division  may  be  preferable : — 
I.  Ancient  view,  or  that  held  by  the  ancients  generally,  and  es- 
pecially their  philosophers. 
II.  Modern  view.     Causes  which  may  hare  operated  to  produce 
a  change  of  opinion. 
V.  Author^s  Vieiv.   Arguments  to  sustain  it.    The  negative  argument, 
or  proving  the  truth  of  what  is  advanced  by  showing  the  absurd- 
ity of  the  contrary,  is  often  introduced  with  fine  effect. 
It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  heads  that  the  essay  may  contain  all 
the  parts  of  composition, — description,  narration,  argument,  exposition, 
and  speculation. 

§  460.  As  a  specimen  of  the  essay,  in  the  brief  form  in 
which,  as  a  school  or  college  exercise,  it  generally  appears, 
we  subjoin  a  composition  on  Friendship.^  which  may  be  sup- 
posed to  have  been  written  from  the  following 

ANALYSIS. 

I.  Definition.     What  is  friendship  ? 

II.  Origin  and  necessity. 

III.  Estimation  in  which  it  was  formerly  held.     Examples. 

IV.  Universality  ;  extends  to  all  ranks  of  life. 

V.  Benefits  of  true,  and  evils  of  false,  friendship. 

VI.  Conclusion.     Practical  reflections. 

What  heads  will  generally  be  found  appropriate  ?    If  the  subject  is  one  on  which 
there  is  a  difference  of  opinion,  what  heads  will  it  be  well  to  take  ? 


382  ESSAYS. 

FRIENDSHIP, 

Frlendehip  is  an  attachment  between  persons  of  congenial  dlspoaitionB, 
habits,  and  pursuits. 

It  has  its  origin  in  the  nature  and  condition  of  man.  Tie  is  a  social  creature, 
and  naturally  loves  to  frequent  the  society,  and  enjoy  the  affections,  of  those  -who 
are  like  himself.  He  is  also,  individually,  a  feeble  creature  ;  and  a  sense  of  this 
weakness  renders  friendship  indispensable  to  him.  Though  he  may  have  all 
other  enjoyments  within  his  reach,  he  still  finds  his  happiness  incomplete,  unless 
participated  by  one  whom  he  considers  his  friend.  When  in  difllculty  and  dis- 
tress, he  looks  around  for  advice,  assistance,  and  consolation. 

No  wonder,  therefore,  that  a  sentiment  of  such  importance  to  man  should 
have  been  so  frequently  and  so  fully  considered.  We  can  scarcely  open  any  of 
the  volumes  of  antiquity  without  being  reminded  how  excellent  a  thing  is  friend- 
ship. The  examples  of  David  and  Jonathan,  Achilles  and  Patroclus,  Pylades  and 
Orestes,  Nisus  and  Euryalus,  Damon  and  Pythias,  all  show  to  what  a  degree  of 
enthusiasm  it  was  sometimes  carried.  Even  the  great  Cicero  deemed  it  of  suffi- 
cient importance  to  form  the  subject  of  one  of  his  masterly  essays.  But  it  is  to 
be  feared  that,  in  modern  times,  friendship  is  seldom  remarkable  for  similar  de- 
votedness.  With  some,  it  is  nominal  rather  than  real ;  and,  with  others,  it  is 
regulated  entirely  by  self-interest. 

Yet  it  would,  no  doubt,  be  possible  to  produce,  from  every  rank  in  life,  and 
from  every  state  of  society,  instances  of  sincere  and  disinterested  friendship, 
creditable  to  human  nature,  and  to  the  age  in  which  we  live.  We  can  not  think 
BO  ill  of  our  species  as  to  believe  that  selfishness  has  got  the  better  of  their  nobler 
feelings  sufficiently  to  destroy  their  sympathy  with  their  fellow-creatures,  and 
their  love  towards  those  whom  God  hath  given  them  for  neighbors  and  brethren. 

After  these  remarks,  to  enlarge  on  the  benefits  of  possessing  a  real  fHend  ap- 
pears unnecessary.  What  would  be  more  intolerable  than  the  consciousness  that 
in  all  the  wide  world,  not  one  heart  beat  in  unison  with  our  own,  or  cared  for 
our  welfare  ?  What  indescribable  happiness  must  it  be,  on  the  other  hand,  to 
possess  a  real  friend ;— a  friend  who  will  counsel,  instnict,  assist ;  who  will  bear 
a  willing  part  in  our  calamity,  and  cordially  rejoice  when  the  hour  of  happiness 
returns ! 

Let  us  remember,  however,  that  all  who  assume  the  name  of  friends  are  not 
entitled  to  our  confidence.  History  records  many  instances  of  the  fatal  conse- 
quences of  infidelity  in  friendship ;  and  it  can  not  be  denied  that  the  world  con- 
tains men  who  are  happy  to  find  a  heart  they  can  pervert,  or  a  head  they  can 
mislead,  if  thus  their  unworthy  ends  can  be  more  surely  attained.  Caution  in 
the  formation  of  friendships  is,  therefore,  in  the  highest  degree  necessary.  We 
should  admit  none  to  the  altar  of  our  social  affections  without  closely  scrutinizing 
their  lives  and  characters.  We  must  assure  ourselves  of  the  uprightness  and 
truth  of  those  to  whom  we  open  our  hearts  in  friendship,  if  we  would  not  have  a 
pernicious  influence  exerted  on  our  o\\'n  dispositions ;  if  we  would  not,  in  the 
Iiour  of  trial,  find  ourselves  forgotten  and  abandoned  to  the  cold  charities  of  an 
un sympathizing  world. 

EXERCISE. 
Write  an  Essay  from  the  following  extended  Analysis : — 

A   GOOD   CAUSE   MAKES   A   STOUT  HEART. 

I.  /nirodudion.     Courage  is  n  natural  quality,  yet  it  is  often  increased 
or  lessened  by  circumstances.     Among  the  considerations  which 


BXEECISE  IN  ESSAY-WEITING.  383 

tend  to  confirm  this  quality  on  particular  occasions,  is  the  con- 
sciousness that  we  have  right  on  our  side,  that  we  are  engaged  in 
a  just  and  honorable  cause. 

II.  Reasons  why  this  is  the  case.   . 

1.  A  mind  conscious  of  right  is  not  ashamed ;  and,  as  shame  is 
always  cowardly,  so  the  absence  of  it  conduces  to  moral  courage. 

2.  A  mind  conscious  to  itself  of  honest  intentions  is  not  paralyzed 
by  any  fear  of  being  detected  in  what  it  is  doing. 

3.  Conscious  rectitude  gives  confidence  to  the  heart,  from  a  convic- 
tion of  being  in  the  path  of  duty. 

4.  A  good  cause  makes  a  stout  heart,  from  a  persuasion  that  God 
will  maintain  the  right ;  and,  "  if  God  be  for  us,  who  can  be 
against  us  ?  " 

5.  A  desire  for  the  approbation  of  men  will  encourage  those  who  are 
engaged  in  the  cause  of  truth  and  justice. 

6.  The  just  man  will  be  further  emboldened  by  the  reflection  that 
his  adversary's  cause  is  a  bad  one,  and  can  not  prevail  against 
him. 

Y.  Even  to  fail  in  a  good  cause  is  honorable ;  and,  therefore,  the 
upright  mind  is  sustained  by  the  double  assurance  mentioned  by 
St.  Paul,  "  Whether  we  live,  we  live  unto  the  Lord  ;  or  whether 
we  die,  we  die  unto  the  Lord :  living  or  dying,  we  are  the 
Lord's." 

III.  Contrast. — While  he  who  feels  he  is  in  the  right  is  thus  fearless,  one 
who  is  doing  what  he  knows  to  be  wrong  is  afraid  to  be  seen  :  his 
heart  is  paralyzed  by  a  constant  dread  of  detection,  disgrace,  and 
punishment ;  and  the  conviction  that  he  is  maintaining  the  wrong 
against  an  adversary  who  is  armed  with  the  consciousness  of  recti- 
tude, will  have  a  most  pernicious  influence  upon  both  his  moral  and 
physical  courage. 

IV  Similes. — As  bright  armor  will  resist  a  musket-ball  far  better  than  a 
rusty  suit  of  mail,  so  a  good  cause  is  far  stronger  than  a  puissant 
arm  raised  to  uphold  what  is  wrong. 

A  good  foundation  makes  a  building  firm ;  and  when  the  rain 
descends  and  the  floods  come,  and  the  winds  blow  and  beat  upon 
that  house,  it  will  not  fall,  because  its  foundation  is  secure ;  whereas, 
a  house  built  upon  the  sand  can  not  resist  the  rain,  the  floods,  and 
the  wind,  but  will  fall  when  they  beat  against  it,  and  great  will  be 
the  fall  thereof. 

A  ship  built  of  sound  timber  may  weather  the  roughest  sea ;  but 
one  made  of  rotten  planks  can  not  ride  in  safety  through  the 
smoothest  water. 

A  dog  stealing  a  bone  is  alarmed  at  the  slightest  sound,  and  will 
run  away ;  while  the  same  dog,  guarding  a  house  at  night,  can  not 
be  terrified  by  threats  or  danger. 

A  "  thief  doth  fear  each  bush  an  oflScer  " ;  but  a  soldier  in  the 
battle-field  will  stand  fearlessly  at  the  cannon's  mouth. 

Boys  engaged  upon  their  duty  are  not  afraid  of  the  eye  of  their 
master ;  but  every  sound  alarms  them  when  they  are  doing  what 
tliey  know  to  be  wrong, 

A  dying  man  who  has  endeavored  to  discharge  his  duty,  is  not 


384  EXERCISE   IN   ESSAY-WRITING. 

afraid  to  meet  his  Maker ;  but  one  whose  conscience  tells  him  that 
he  has  been  an  evil-doer,  is  in  an  agony  of  fear  when  he  finds  himself 
on  his  death-bed. 
Y.  Historical  Illustrations. — According  to  Shakspeare's  representation, 
Richard  III.,  at  the  battle  of  Bosworth  Field,  was  weighed  down 
with  the  oppression  of  conscious  guilt ;  but  Richmond,  being  buoyed 
up  with  the  conviction  of  the  justness  of  his  cause,  fought  like  a  lion, 
and  prevailed. 

Macbeth  started  at  every  whisper  of  the  wind,  or  shriek  of  the 
night-hawk,  when  he  went  to  murder  Duncan  ;  but  stood  as  an  "  eagle 
against  a  sparrow,  or  a  lion  against  a  hare,"  in  the  fierce  contest  with 
the  Norwegian  rebels. 

Siccius  Dentatus  resisted  a  hundred  adversaries  sent  to  assassi- 
nate him,  with  considerable  success  ;  killing  fifteen,  and  wounding 
thirty  others, 

A  usurper  is  in  constant  fear  of  conspiracies  :  common  tradition 
says  that  Cromwell  wore  armor  under  his  clothes,  and  never  went 
and  returned  by  the  same  route. 

Leonidas,  at  the  pass  of  Thermopyla),  was  not  afraid  with  three 
hundred  men  to  oppose  Xerxes,  the  invader  of  Greece,  at  the  head 
of  a  million  troops. 

William  Tell,  with  a  handful  of  adherents,  boldly  resisted  the 
Austrian  multitude,  and  even  repulsed  it. 

David,  with  a  simple  sling  and  stone,  encountered  Goliath,  the 
giant  of  Gath,  and  slew  him. 

VI.  Quotations. — Honor   shall    uphold    the    humble    in    spirit. — Prov. 
xxix.,  23. 

The  wicked  flee  when  no  man  pursucth  ;  but  the  righteous  are 
bold  as  a  lion. — Prov.  xxviii.,  1. 

Virtue  is  bold,  and  goodness  never  fearful. — Shalspeare. 
Thrice  is  he  armed  that  hath  his  quarrel  just ; 
And  he  but  naked,  though  locked  up  in  steel. 
Whose  conscience  with  injustice  is  corrupted. 

Shakspeare. 
Conscience  makes  cowards  of  us  all. — Shakspeare. 
Conscience  is  a  dangerous  thing,  it  makes  a  man  a  coward ;  a 
man  can  not  steal,  but  it  accuscth  him ;  a  man  can  not  swear,  but  it 
checks  him.     'Tis  a  blushing  shamefaced  spirit,  that  mutinies  in  a 
man's  bosom,  and  fills  one  full  of  obstacles. — Shakspeare. 

When  the  mind  proposes  honorable  ends,  not  only  the  viitui<?, 
but  the  deities  also,  are  ready  to  assist. — Lord  Bacon. 
Innocence  is  the  best  armor. — Proverb. 

VII.  Conchmon. 

1.  When  we  fool  ill  at  ease  and  afraid  to  persevere  in  an  enterprise 
or  take  a  bold  part  against  our  adversaries,  let  us  carefully  ex- 
amine whether  our  cause  is  just. 

2.  If  we  would  not  be  cowards,  we  must  be  sure  that  we  have  right 
on  our  side  ;  for,  if  we  have  not,  we  will  inevitably  distrust  our 
own  success  and  be  unable  to  do  justice  to  the  cause  in  which  we 
arc  engaged. 


EXERCISES   m   ESSAY-WEITING.  385 

LESSON    CII. 

EXERdlSES    IN    ESSAY-WRITING. 

1.  Draw  up  an  Analysis,  and  write  an  Essay,  from  the 

following  suggestions : — 

What  is  Society  ? — When  did  it  begin  to  exist  ? — Under  what  forms 
did  it  at  first  appear  ? — What  are  its  benefits  ? — What  is  the  effect  of 
society  on  the  human  mind  ? — What  is  its  effect  on  the  arts  and  sci- 
ences ? — Show  the  difference  between  a  state  of  barbarism  and  one  of 
civilization. — What  are  the  disadvantages  of  society  ? — Mention  some  of 
the  vices  engendered  by  an  over-refined  state  of  society — and  the  per- 
nicious effects  resulting  to  the  community  from  them. — Give  historical 
examples  of  these  effects. 

2.  Draw  up  an  Analysis,  and  write  an  Essay,  from  the 

following  suggestions : — 

What  docs  the  word  government  signify  ? — Show  the  origin  and  ne- 
cessity of  government. — Show  the  effects  of  anarchy. — Which  was  the 
earliest  form  of  government  ? — Describe  this  patriarchal  form  of  govern- 
ment.— What  qualities  naturally  give  one  man  a  power  over  others  ? — 
Which  are,  or  have  been,  the  prevailing  forms  of  government  ? — Enu- 
merate the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each. — Which  is  the  most 
stable  ? — What  is  the  form  of  government  in  this  country  ? — Show  the 
advantages  of  the  government  of  the  United  States. — Conclusion ;  how 
thankful  we  should  be  that  our  lots  are  cast  in  a  country  which  enjoys 
so  liberal  a  government,  and  how  careful  we  should  be  not  to  abuse  the 
blessings  thus  placed  within  our  reach  ! 


LESSON  GUI. 

THESES,   OR  ARGITMiENTATIVE    DISCOURSES. 

§  461.  The  fifth  form  in  which  prose  compositions  ap- 
pear is  that  of  the  Thesis,  or  Argumentative  Discourse. 

A  Thesis,  or  Argumentative  Discourse,  is  a  composition 
in  which  the  writer  lays  down  a  proposition,  and  endeavors 
to  persuade  others  that  it  is  true.    The  statements  or  reasons 

§  461.  What  is  the  fifth  form  in  which  prose  compositions  appear?  What  is  a 
thesis,  or  argumentative  discourse  ?  What  are  arguments?  In  what  case  doe» 
a  thesis  become  an  oration  ? 

17 


380  ARGUMENTATIVE  DISCOURSES. 

used  for  this  purpose  are  called  Arguments.  When  intended 
for  delivery,  or  written  in  a  suitable  style  for  that  purpose,  a 
thesis  becomes  an  Oration. 

§  462.  In  the  conduct  of  orations  and  argumentative  dis- 
courses, six  formal  divisions  were  adopted  by  the  ancients ; 
the  Exordium  or  Introduction,  the  Division,  the  Statement, 
the  Reasoning,  the  Appeal  to  the  Feelings,  and  the  Perora- 
tion. It  is  by  no  means  necessary,  however,  that  these  six 
parts  should  enter  into  every  discourse.  To  employ  them 
all  would  inevitably,  in  some  cases,  produce  an  appearance 
of  stifiness  and  pedantry.  Yet,  as  any  of  them  may  be  used, 
we  proceed  to  define  and  treat  briefly  of  each. 

§  463.  The  object  of  the  Exordium,  or  Introduction,  is  to 
render  the  reader  or  hearer  well-disposed,  attentive,  and  open 
to  persuasion. 

To  accomplish  the  first  of  these  ends,  the  writer  must  make  a  modest 
opening,  and  convey  to  hia  readers  the  impression  that  he  is  candidly 
maintaining  a  position  of  the  truth  of  which  he  is  himself  assured.  To 
awaken  attention,  he  should  hint  at  the  importance,  novelty,  or  dignity 
of  the  subject.  Finally,  to  make  his  readers  open  to  conviction,  he 
should  endeavor  to  remove  any  prejudices  they  may  have  formed  against 
the  side  of  the  question  he  intends  to  espouse. 

The  introduction  of  a  discourse  is  its  most  difficult  part. 
If,  as  we  have  seen,  it  is  important  in  other  compositions  to 
make  a  good  impression  at  the  outset,  it  is  doubly  so  when 
we  are  endeavoring  to  persuade.  The  follomng  suggestions 
will  be  found  generally  applicable : — 

I.  An  introduction  must  bo  easy  and  natural.     It  must  appear,  as 
Cicero  says,  "  to  have  sprung  up  of  its  own  accord  from  the  matter  under 
consideration".     To  insure  these  qualities,  it  is  recommended  that  the 
introduction  should  not  be  composed  until  the  other  parts  of  the  discour.^ 
are  written,  or  at  least  until  its  general  scope  and  bearing  are  digested. 

§  4G2.  In  the  conduct  of  argumentative  diecourses,  what  formal  divisions  were 
adopted  by  the  ancients  ?  In  some  cases,  what  would  result  from  employing  all 
these  divisions? 

§  4C3.  What  is  the  object  of  the  exordium  ?  Wliat  mnst  the  writer  do,  in  or- 
der to  accomplish  these  three  ends  ?  What  is  said  of  the  importance  of  hnvinf; 
an  effective  introduction  ?  What  is  the  first  essential  of  an  introduction  ?  What 
does  Cicero  say  on  this  head  ?    To  insure  this,  when  is  it  recommended  that  the 


ARGUMENTATIVE  DISCOURSES.  387 

Cicero,  though  in  treating  of  the  subject  he  distinctly  approves  of  this 
plan,  did  not  see  fit  in  his  own  case  to  follow  it.  It  was  his  custom,  as 
wc  learn  from  one  of  his  Letters  to  Atticus,  to  prepare,  at  his  leisure,  a 
variety  of  introductions,  that  he  might  have  them  in  readiness  for  any 
work  which  he  should  afterwards  write.  In  consequence  of  this  singular 
mode  of  proceeding,  he  happened  unwittingly  to  employ  the  same  intro- 
duction in  two  different  works.  Atticus  informed  him  of  the  fact,  and 
Cicero,  acknowledging  the  mistake,  sent  him  a  new  exordium. 

II.  In  the  second  place,  modesty  is  essential  in  an  introduction  ;  it 
must  not  promise  too  much,  and  thus  raise  expectations  in  the  reader 
which  may  be  disappointed. 

III.  An  introduction  is  not  the  place  for  vehemence  and  passion. 
The  minds  of  the  readers  must  be  gradually  prepared  before  the  writer 
can  venture  on  strong  and  animated  outbursts.  An  exception,  however, 
may  be  made  when  the  subject  is  of  such  a  nature  that  the  very  mention 
of  it  naturally  awakens  passionate  emotion. 

TV.  Introductions,  moreover,  should  not  anticipate  any  material  part 
of  the  subject.  If  topics  or  arguments  afterwards  to  be  enlarged  upon 
are  hinted  at  or  partially  discussed  in  the  introduction,  they  lose,  when 
subsequently  brought  forward,  the  grace  of  novelty,  and  thereby  a  great 
portion  of  their  effect. 

Y.  Lastly,  the  introduction  should  be  accommodated,  both  in  length 
and  character,  to  the  discourse  that  is  to  follow :  in  length,  as  nothing 
can  be  more  absurd  than  to  erect  an  immense  vestibule  before  a  dimin- 
utive building ;  and  in  character,  as  it  is  no  less  absurd  to  overcharge 
with  superb  ornaments  the  portico  of  a  plain  dwelling-house,  or  to  make 
the  entrance  to  a  monument  as  gay  as  that  to  an  arbor. 

§  464.  The  Division  is  that  part  of  a  discourse  in  which 
the  writer  makes  known  to  his  readers  the  method  to  be  pur- 
sued, and  the  heads  he  intends  to  take,  in  treating  his  subject. 
There  are  many  cases  in  which  the  division  is  unnecessary ; 
some,  in  which  its  introduction  would  even  be  improper :  as, 
for  instance,  when  only  a  single  argument  is  to  be  used. 

introduction  should  be  composed?  What  was  Cicero's  practice?  Into  what 
tlifflculty  did  it  once  lead  him  ?  In  the  second  place,  what  is  essential  in  an  in- 
troduction ?  Thirdly,  for  what  is  an  introduction  not  the  place  ?  What  excep- 
tion is  made  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  anticipating  in  the  introduction  any  material 
part  of  the  subject  ?  Lastly,  to  what  should  the  introduction  be  accommodated  ? 
How  is  this  illustrated  ? 

§  464.  What  is  the  division  ?   In  what  compositions  is  it  most  frequently  used  ? 
What  has  been  questioned  by  many  ?    What  is  th«  opinion  of  the  Archbishon  of 


38S  ARGUMENTATIVE   DISCOURSES. 

A  formal  division  is  used  more  frequently  in  the  sermon  than  in  any 
other  species  of  composition ;  but  it  has  been  questioned  by  many 
whether  the  laying  down  of  heads,  as  it  is  called,  does  not  lessen,  rather 
than  add  to,  the  effect.  The  Archbishop  of  Cambray,  in  his  Dialogues 
on  Eloquence,  strongly  condemns  it :  observing  that  it  is  a  modern  in- 
vention, which  took  its  rise  only  when  metaphysics  began  to  be  intro- 
duced into  preaching ;  that  it  renders  a  sermon  stiff  and  destroys  its 
unity,  and  is  fatal  to  oratorical  effect.  It  is  urged,  on  the  other  hand, 
hovv'cver,  that  a  formal  division  renders  a  sermon  more  clear  by  showing 
how  all  the  parts  hang  on  each  other  and  tend  to  one  and  the  same 
point,  and  thus  makes  it  more  impressive  and  instructive.  The  heads 
of  a  sermon,  moreover,  are  of  great  assistance  to  the  memory  of  a 
hearer ;  they  enable  him  to  keep  pace  with  the  progress  of  the  discourse, 
and  afford  him  resting-places  whence  he  can  reflect  on  what  has  been 
said,  and  look  forward  to  what  is  to  follow. 

When  the  division  is  employed,  care  should  be  taken, 

I.  That  the  several  points  into  which  the  subject  is  divided  be  really 
distinct ;  that  is,  that  no  one  include  another. 

II.  That  the  heads  taken  be  those  into  which  the  subject  is  most 
easily  and  naturally  resolved. 

III.  That  the  several  members  of  the  division  exhaust  the  subject. 

IV.  That  there  be  no  unnecessary  multiplication  of  heads,  to  district 
and  weary  the  reader. 

V.  That  a  natural  order  be  followed;  that  is,  that  the  simplest 
points  be  first  discussed,  and  afterwards  the  more  difficult  ones  that  arc 
founded  on  them. 

VI.  That  the  terms  in  which  the  division  is  expressed  be  as  con- 
cise as  possible.  That  there  be  no  circumlocution,  no  unnecessary 
words. 

§  465.  The  third  division  of  a  discourse  is  the  Statement, 
in  Avliich  the  facts  connected  with  the  subject  are  laid  open. 
This  generally  forms  an  important  part  of  legal  pleadings. 
The  statement  should  be  jDut  forth  in  a  clear  and  forcible 
style.  The  writer  must  state  liis  facts  in  such  a  way  as  to 
keep  strictly  within  the  bounds  of  truth,  and  yet  to  present 

Cambray  ?   What  advanta^os,  on  the  other  hand,  doe?  a  formal  division  possess  f 
"When  the  division  Is  employed,  what  elx  points  nhoukl  bo  attended  to  ? 

H<35.  What  is  tlic  third  division  of  a  discourse?  WHiat  is  the  statement  ?  Of 
Avhat  compositions  does  it  form  an  Important  part  ?  In  what  style  should  It  be 
written  ?    IIow  must  the  writer  state  his  fuas  ? 


AEGtJMENTATiVfi  DISCOtJKSES.  389 

them  under  the  colors  that  are  most  favorable  to  his  cause ; 
to  place  in  the  most  striking  light  every  circumstance  that 
is  to  his  advantage,  and  explain  away,  as  far  as  possible, 
such  as  make  against  him. 

§  466.  The  fourth  division  is  the  Reasoning ;  and  on  this 
every  thing  depends.  It  is  here  that  the  arguments  are 
found  which  are  to  induce  conviction,  and  to  prepare  for 
which  is  the  object  of  the  parts  already  discussed.  The  fol- 
lowing suggestions  should  be  regarded : — 

I.  The  writer  should  select  such  arguments  only  as  he  feels  to  bo 
solid  and  convincing.  He  must  not  expect  to  impose  on  the  world  by 
mere  arts  of  language  ;  but,  placing  himself  in  the  situation  of  a  reader, 
should  think  how  he  would  be  affected  by  the  reasoning  which  he  pro- 
poses to  use  for  the  persuasion  of  others. 

II.  When  the  arguments  employed  are  strong  and  satisfactory,  the 
more  they  are  distinguished  and  treated  apart  from  each  other,  the 
better ;  but,  when  they  are  weak  or  doubtful,  it  is  expedient  rather  to 
throw  them  together,  than  to  present  each  in  a  clear  and  separate  light. 

III.  When  we  have  a  number  of  arguments  of  different  degrees  of 
strength,  it  is  best  to  begin  and  close  with  the  stronger,  placing  the 
weaker  in  the  middle,  where  they  will  naturally  attract  least  attention. 

IV.  Arguments  should  not  be  multiplied  too  much,  or  extended  too 
far.  Besides  burdening  the  memory,  and  lessening  the  effect  of  indi- 
vidual points,  such  diffuseness  renders  a  cause  suspected. 

§  467.  The  fifth  division  is  the  Appeal  to  the  FeelingSc 
This  should  be  short  and  to  the  jDoint.  All  appearance  of 
art  should  be  strictly  avoided.  To  move  his  readers,  the 
writer  must  be  moved  himself. 

§  468.  Tlie  last  division  of  a  discourse  is  the  Peroration ; 
in  Avhich  the  writer  sums  up  all  that  has  been  said,  and  en- 
deavors to  leave  a  forcible  impression  on  the  reader's  mind. 

§406.  What  is  the  fourth  division  ?  Ofwhat  does  it  consist?  Whatar^imeuts 
ehould  bo  selected  ?  When  the  arguments  employed  are  strong  and  satisfactory, 
how  should  they  be  treated  ?  How,  when  they  arc  weak  or  doubtful  ?  When  we  have 
a  number  of  arguments  of  different  degrees  of  strength,  how  is  it  best  to  arrange 
them  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  multiplying  arguments  too  much,  or  extending  them 
too  far  ? 

§  467.  What  is  the  fifth  division  of  a  discourse  ?  What  should  be  the  character 
©f  an  appeal  to  the  feelings  ? 

§  468.  What  is  the  last  division  of  a  discourse  ?   lu  it,  what  does  the  writer  do  ? 


390  ARGUMENTATIVE   DISCOURSES. 

§  469.  As  examples,  two  argumentative  discourses  are 
presented  below,  supporting,  respectively,  the  affirmative 
and  the  negative  of  the  question,  "  Does  virtue  always  in- 
sure happiness  ?  " 

[Affirmative.'\ 

VIRTUE   ALWAYS   INSURES  HAPPINESS. 

Selfishness  exerts  a  powerful  influence  over  the  actions  of  all  men.  Even  when 
we  least  suspect  that  we  are  complying  with  its  dictates,  if  we  closely  examine  the 
pprings  of  our  action,  we  shall  find  that  we  are  instinctively  following  the  prompt- 
ings of  our  own  tastes  and  propensities.  We  can  hence  perceive  the  vrisdom  of 
Providence,  who,  to  win  men  to  virtue  even  against  their  own  will,  has  annexed  to 
it  an  invariable  reward.  Happiness  He  has  made  depend  solely  and  exclusively  on 
uprightness ;  and  this  proposition  it  is  the  object  of  the  present  discourse  to  estab- 
lish. 

It  would  seem  as  if  this  were  bo  palpable  a  truth  that  it  would  require  no  dem- 
onstration, but  would  be  at  once  universally  admitted.  Yet  there  are  some, 
who,  despite  the  teachings  of  moralists  of  every  age,  deeming  themselves  wiser 
in  their  generation  than  the  children  of  light,  have  thought  proper  to  deny  it,  and 
thus  have  sought  to  overthrow  the  strongest  bulwark  on  which  society  depends. 
Whatever  the  scoffer  may  say,  however  confidently  he  may  point  to  individual  in- 
stances as  contradicting  the  position  here  maintained,  it  becomes  the  candid  ex- 
aminer not  to  be  driven  from  the  truth  by  ridicule  or  sophistry ;  not  to  let  sneers 
prevail  against  the  weight  of  testimony  that  ancient  sages,  as  well  as  modem  phi- 
losophers, have  borne  on  this  subject ;  and,  finally,  to  consider  with  care  before 
he  ventures  to  disbelieve  a  doctrine  which  is  at  the  foundation  of  all  morality. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  necessary  to  define  virtue ;  we  regard  it  as  consisting  in 
the  discharge  of  our  duty  to  God  and  our  neighbor,  despite  all  temptations  to  the 
contrary.  Our  first  argument  is,  that  a  virtuous  course  is  so  consonant  to  the 
light  of  reason,  is  bo  agreeable  to  our  moral  sentiments,  and  produces  such  peace 
of  mind,  that  it  may  be  said  to  carry  its  reward  along  with  it,  even  if  unattended 
by  that  recompenso  which  it  ought  to  receive  from  the  world. 

This  is  evident  in  the  very  nature  of  things.  The  all-wise  and  beneficent  Au- 
thor of  nature  has  so  framed  the  soul  of  man  that  he  can  not  but  approve  of  virtue, 
whether  in  himself  or  in  others,  and  has  annexed  to  the  practice  of  it  an  inward 
satisfaction  that  surpasses  all  the  blessings  of  earth.  The  goods  of  fortuuc, 
wealth,  rank,  external  prosperity,— all  these  may  take  to  themselves  wings  and 
lly  away ;  but  of  the  happiness  which  springs  from  the  consciousness  of  a  proper 
discharge  of  duty,  no  thief  can  rob  us,  no  stroke  of  adversity  can  deprive  us. 

But  the  reward  of  virtue  is  not  always  confined  to  this  internal  peace  and  hap- 
piness. As,  in  the  works  of  nature  and  art,  whatever  Is  really  beautiful  is  gen- 
erally useful,  so  in  the  moral  world,  whatever  is  truly  virtuous,  is  at  the  same 
time  so  beneficial  to  society  that  it  seldom  goes  without  some  external  recom- 
pense. Men  know  that  they  can  depend  on  one  who  acts  ffom  principle ;  they 
have  confidence  in  his  words  and  representations,  and  give  him  the  preference 
in  all  matters  of  business.  Thus,  even  in  a  worldly  point  of  view,  the  virtuous 
man  has  an  advantage  over  those  of  loose  principles  or  immoral  lives. 

In  the  third  place,  nothing  is  so  liable  to  create  in  our  behalf  firm  and  lasting 
friendship  on  the  part  of  the  good,  as  virtuous  practices.  The  associations  of 
the  wicked  are  undeserviug  of  the  name  of  friendship ;  it  is  only  to  the  elevated 


AEGUMENTATIVE  DISCOURSES.  391 

fellowsliip  of  uprigM  minds  that  this  term  is  applied.  Now,  that  friendship  is  a 
source  of  the  purest  happiness  none  will  deny ;  and  for  the  blessings  resulting 
from  it  we  are  thus  indebted,  in  a  great  measure,  to  virtue. 

But  there  is  another  important  consideration  that  we  should  not  forget.  Few 
men  are  so  constituted  as  to  be  insensible  to  the  approbation  or  censure  of  the 
world.  To  many,  its  smile  is  alone  suflacient  to  constitute  happiness  ;  its  frown 
is  a  source  of  misery.  Now,  this  smile  is  gained  in  no  way  so  readily  as  by  a 
course  of  integrity. 

How  has  the  approbation  of  all  ages  rewarded  the  virtue  of  Scipio !  That 
great  warrior  had  taken  a  beautiful  captive,  with  whose  charms  he  was  greatly 
enamoured ;  but,  finding  that  she  was  betrothed  to  a  young  nobleman  of  her  own 
country,  he,  without  hesitation,  generously  delivered  her  up  to  his  rival.  This 
one  act  of  the  noble  Eoman  has,  more  than  aU  his  conquests,  shed  an  imperish- 
able lustre  round  his  character. 

Nor  has  the  approbation  of  society  been  limited  to  the  virtuous  actions  of  in- 
dividuals. The  loveliness  of  virtue  generally  has  been  the  constant  topic  of  all 
moralists,  ancient  and  modern.  Plato  remarks,  that,  if  virtue  were  to  assume  a 
human  form,  it  would  command  the  admiration  of  the  whole  world.  A  late 
writer  has  said,  "  In  every  region,  every  clime,  the  homage  paid  to  virtue  is  tho 
same.    In  no  one  sentiment  were  ever  mankind  more  generally  agreed." 

If,  therefore,  virtue  is  in  itself  so  lovely ;  if  it  is  accompanied  with  an  inward 
peace  and  satisfaction ;  if  it  is  a  source  of  temporal  advantages ;  if  it  is  the 
spring  from  which  flow  the  blessings  of  friendship ;  if  it  wins  for  those  who 
practise  it  the  approbation  of  the  world ;— it  must  be  admitted  by  every  candid 
inquirer  that  the  proposition  with  which  we  started  is  true,  that  virtue  always 
insures  happiness.  Though  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  it  is  frequently  at- 
tended with  crosses  in  this  life,  and  that  something  of  self-denial  is  implied  in  ita 
very  idea ;  yet  the  wise  will  admit  the  truth  of  the  poet's  words,  will  consider 

"  The  broadest  mirtb  unfeeling  Folly  wears, 
Less  pleasing  far  than  Virtue's  very  tears  ". 

Our  own  experience,  no  less  than  the  arguments  here  adduced,  must  convince 
us  that 

"  Guilt  ever  carries  his  own  scourge  along ; 
Virtue,  her  own  reward  ". 

iNegative."] 

VIRTUE  DOES  NOT  ALWAYS  INSURE  HAPPINESS. 

In  contemplating  the  maxims  of  the  ancient  Stoic  philosophers,  we  can  not 
help  being  struck  with  the  soundness  of  their  principles,  and  the  stem  require- 
ments of  their  moral  code.  Yet  there  is  one  of  their  propositions  to  which  we 
can  not  yield  assent:  and  that  is,  that  temporal  happiness  is  the  necessary  con- 
sequence of  virtue.  So  important  a  question,— one  on  which  so  many  issues, 
and  those  the  practical  issues  of  life,  are  staked,— is  well  worthy  of  discussion. 

It  is  well  imderstood  that,  in  treating  this  question,  prejudices  will  have  to  be 
combated  and  removed :  for  there  are  many  who,  without  having  looked  closely 
at  the  subject,  have  followed  the  ancient  Stoics ;  and,  because  it  is  a  convenient 
creed  to  teach,  and  one  which  it  is  believed  will  lead  to  the  practice  of  virtue, 
have  sought  to  inculcate  this  selfish  principle.  A  regard  for  virtue  should  be 
instilled  by  higher  arguments  than  this ;  virtue  should  be  practised  because  it  is 
a  duty,— because  it  is  the  command  of  God. 

In  the  first  place,  we  lay  down  the  proposition  that  there  is  no  necessary  con- 
nection between  virtue  and  happiness.    To  the  ancients,  who  knew  not  that  the 


392  ORATIONS. 

Boal  was  immortal,  it  may  have  seemed  necessary  that  the  patient  self-denial, 
the  forgiving  charity,  and  the  active  benevolence,  of  virtue,  ehoulrt  be  rewarded 
in  this  world;  but  we,  who  live  in  the  light  of  a  revelation  from  on  high,  know 
that  there  is  a  hereafter,  and  look  to  that  infinite  cycle  of  ages,  not  to  this  finite 
state  of  probation,  for  the  reward  to  which  virtue  may  be  entitled. 

Again :  no  one  can  deny  that  it  is  an  important  principle  of  our  religious  sys- 
tem that  the  virtuous  and  the  pious  should  be  put  to  the  trial,  and  that  afflictions 
and  crosses  are  sent  by  the  Omnipotent  to  test  the  stability  of  their  faith  and 
practice.  As  Job,  a  man  that  "  feared  God  and  eschewed  evil ",  was  tried  by 
visitations  from  on  high  ;  so  have  the  good  of  all  ages  been  obliged  to  submit  to 
similar  probation.  Viewed  in  this  light,  it  would  seem  that  trial  is  peculiarly, 
in  this  world,  the  lot  of  virtue  ;  the  necessary  preparation  to  be  made,  in  time, 
by  those  who  would  enjoy  a  blissful  eternity. 

But  those  who,  with  the  poet,  believe  that 

"  Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below  ", 

point  us  to  the  pleasures  of  a  quiet  conscience,  and  the  peace  which  a  knowledge 
of  the  performance  of  duty  brings  with  it  It  is  admitted  that  these  are  great 
blessings,  and  that  without  them  happiness  can  not  exist ;  but  are  they  alone 
sufficient  to  make  a  man  happy?  Can  the  quietest  conscience  in  the  universe 
remove  the  pangs  of  hunger,  alleviate  the  eufi"cring8  of  the  sick,  or  comfort  the 
mourner  ?  The  experience  of  the  world  will  answer  no.  There  are  many  Jobs  ; 
there  arc  many  good,  but  unhappy,  men. 

To  go  a  step  further ;  to  say  what  is  necessary  to  insure  happiness ;  to  point 
to  religion,  the  hope  of  that  which  is  to  come,  as  an  anchor  to  which  the  eoul 
may  cling  "  amid  a  sea  of  trouble  ",— would  be  foreign  to  the  question.  In  view 
of  the  arguments  we  have  advanced,  in  view  of  the  striking  argument  furnished 
by  our  own  experience,  we  think  we  may  fairly  conclude  that 

"  Virtue  alone  is  "  wi  "  happiness  below  ". 

EXERCISE. 
Write  an  Argumentative  Discourse  supporting  cither  the 
aflirmativc   or  the   negative  of  the  question,  "Do  public 
amusements  exercise  a  beneficial  influence  on  society  ?  " 


LESSON    CIV. 

ORATIONS.  —  SERMON- WRITING. 

§  470.  An  Oration  is  a  discourse  intended  for  public  de- 
livery, and  written  in  a  stj'le  adapted  thereto.  At  the 
present  day,  this  tenn  is  generally  applied  to  discourses  ajv 
propriate  to  some  important  or  solemn  occasion ;  such  as  a 
funeral,  an  anniversary,  a  college  commencement,  &c.     It  is 

S  470.  What  is  an  oration  ?   To  what  is  the  term  generally  applied  at  the  pres- 
ent day  ?    How  does  the  oration  differ  from  the  harangue  and  the  address  i 


ORATIONS.  393 

a  spcccli  of  an  elevated  cliaracter,  and  differs  in  this  respect 
from  the  harangue  and  the  address:  the  former  of  which 
impUes  a  noisy  and  declamatory  manner  in  the  speaker ;  the 
latter,  a  less  stately  style  than  characterizes  the  oration. 

§  471.  The  ancients  recognized  three  classes  of  orations ; 
the  demonstrative,  the  deliberative,  and  the  judicial.  The 
scope  of  the  first  was  to  praise  or  to  censure ;  that  of  the  sec- 
ond, to  advise  or  to  persuade ;  that  of  the  third,  to  accuse  or 
to  defend.  The  chief  subjects  of  demonstrative  eloquence, 
for  instance,  were  paneg}T:ics,  invectives,  gratulatory  and 
funeral  orations ;  deliberative  eloquence  was  displayed  chiefly 
in  the  senate-house  and  assembly  of  the  people ;  while  ju- 
dicial eloquence  was  confined  to  the  courts  of  law. 

In  modern  times,  also,  a  threefold  division  has  been  adopted,  though 
one  different  from  that  just  described.    Orations  are  now  distinguished  as, 

I.  Speeches  to  be  delivered  in  deliberative  public  assemblies ;  as  in 
Congress,  at  popular  meetings,  &c. 

II.  Speeches  at  the  bar. 

III.  Sermons,  or  discourses  to  be  delivered  from  the  pulpit. 

§  472.  The  style  of  an  oration  should  be  elevated  and 
forcible.  It  should  not  lack  ornament ;  and  whatever  em- 
bellishments are  introduced  must  be  of  the  most  exalted 
character. 

An  argumentative  discourse,  written  in  the  style  just  described,  and 
intended  for  delivery  in  public,  becomes  an  oration.  To  the  latter,  there- 
fore, the  principles  laid  down  for  such  discourses  in  the  last  lesson  arc 
equally  applicable.  The  same  formal  divisions  may  be  adopted,  cither  in 
whole  or  in  part,  as  occasion  may  require. 

§  473.  Sermons  constitute  the  most  important  class  of 
orations.  For  the  benefit  of  those  who  desire  brief  and  prac- 
tical directions  for  the  preparation  of  such  discourses,  we  con- 
dense the  following  remarks  from  Hannam's  valuable  "  Pulpit 
Assistant "  : — 

§  471.  How  many  classes  of  oratiOus  did  the  ancients  recognize  ?  Name  them, 
and  state  the  scope  of  each.    In  modem  times,  what  division  has  been  adopted  ? 

§  472.  What  should  be  the  style  of  an  oration  ?  What  should  be  the  chat'rtctcr 
of  the  ornaments  introduced  ?  What  divisions  may  be  adopted  in  the  pfepai-a- 
lion  of  orations  ? 

17* 


394:  SEEMON-^VKITTNG. 

PRACTICAL  HINTS   ON  SERMON-WRITING. 

Choice  of  Texts. 

1.  Never  choose  Buch  texts  as  have  not  complete  sense ;  for  only  Impertinent 
and  foolish  people  will  attempt  to  preach  from  one  or  two  words,  which  signify 
nothing. 

2.  Not  only  words  which  have  a  complete  sense  of  themselves  must  be  taken, 
but  they  must  also  include  the  complete  sense  of  the  writer ;  for  it  is  his  lan- 
guage and  sentiments  that  you  aim  to  explain.  For  example,  if  you  take  these 
words  of  2  Cor.  i.,  3,  "Blessed  be  God,  the  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the 
Father  of  mercies,  and  the  God  of  all  comfort,"  and  stop  here,  you  will  have  com- 
plete sense ;  but  it  is  not  the  Apostle's  sense.  If  you  go  further  and  add  "  who 
comforteth  us  in  all  our  tribulation  ",  it  will  not  then  be  the  complete  sense  of 
St.  Paul,  nor  will  his  meaning  be  wholly  taken  in,  unless  you  go  to  the  end  of  the 
fourth  verse.  When  the  complete  sense  of  the  sacred  writer  is  taken,  you  may 
stop ;  for  there  are  few  texts  in  Scripture  which  do  not  afford  matter  sufficient 
for  a  sermon,  and  it  is  as  inconvenient  to  take  too  much  text  as  too  little ;  both 
extremes  must  be  avoided. 

General  Suggestions. 

1.  A  sermon  should  clearly  explain  a  text;  that  is,  should  place  things  before 
the  people's  eyes  in  such  a  way  that  they  may  be  understood  without  difficulty. 
Bishop  Burnett  says,  "  A  preacher  is  to  fancy  himself  as  in  the  room  of  the  most 
unlearned  man  in  the  whole  parish,  and  must  therefore  put  such  parts  of  his  dis- 
courses as  he  would  have  all  understand  in  so  plain  a  form  of  words  that  it  may 
not  be  beyond  the  meanest  of  them.  This  he  will  certainly  study  to  do  if  his  de- 
sire be  to  edify  them,  rather  than  to  make  them  admire  himself  as  a  learned  and 
high-spoken  man." 

2.  A  sermon  must  give  the  entire  sense  of  the  whole  text ;  to  insure  which,  it 
must  be  considered  in  every  view.  This  rule  condemns  dry  and  barren  explica- 
tions, wherein  the  preacher  discovere  neither  study  nor  invention,  and  leaves 
unsaid  a  great  number  of  beautiful  things  with  which  his  text  might  have  fur- 
nished him.  In  matters  of  religion  and  piety,  not  to  edify  much  is  to  destroy 
much ;  and  a  sermon  cold  and  poor,  will  do  more  mischief  in  an  hour,  than  a 
hundred  of  the  other  kind  can  do  good. 

3.  The  preacher  must  be  discreet,  in  opposition  to  those  impertinent  people 
who  utter  jests,  comical  comparisons,  quirks,  and  extravagances ;  sober,  in  op- 
position to  those  rash  spirits  who  would  curiously  dive  into  mysteries  beyond 
the  bounds  of  modesty ;  chaste,  in  opposition  to  those  bold  and  imprudent  ge- 
niuses who  are  not  ashamed  of  saying  many  things  which  beget  unclean  ideas. 
The  preacher  must  be  simple  and  grave.  Simple,  speaking  things  of  good  natu- 
ral sense,  without  metaphysical  speculations ;  grave,  because  all  sorts  of  vulgar 
and  proverbial  sayings  ought  to  be  avoided. 

4.  The  understanding  must  be  informed,but  in  a  manner  which  affects  the  heart ; 
either  to  comfort  the  licarers,  or  to  excite  them  to  acts  of  piety  and  repentance. 

5.  Above  all  things,  avoid  excess.  There  must  not  bo  too  much  genius ;  too 
many  brilliant,  sparkling,  and  shining,  things.  Over-abmidant  ornaments  lead 
the  hearer  to  say,  "  The  man  preaches  himself,  alms  to  display  his  genius,  and  la 
animated  by  the  spirit  of  the  world  rather  than  the  Spirit  of  God." 

(5.  A  sermon  must  not  be  overcharged  with  doctrine,  because  the  hearers* 
memories  can  not  retain  it  all ;  and  by  aiming  to  keep  all,  they  will  lose  all. 

7.  Keasoning  must  not  be  carried  too  far.  Ix>ng  trains  of  argument,  composed 
of  a  number  of  propositions  chained  together,  with  principles  and  consequcucei 
dei)endent  on  them,  are  always  embarrassing  to  the  auditor. 


SERMON-WKIXmG.  395 

Connection. 
By  this  is  meant  the  relation  of  the  text  to  the  foregoing  or  following  verses. 
This  must  be  found  by  deliberate  thought,  with  the  aid  of  good  commentaries. 
The  connection  often  contributes  much  to  the  elucidation  of  the  text ;  and,  in 
this  case,  should  always  be  alluded  to  in  the  discourse.  The  beginning  of  the 
sermon  seems  to  be  the  best  place  for  treating  it ;  it  often  affords  good  material 
for  an  introduction. 

Division. 

Four  or  five  heads  are  generally  sufficient ;  a  greater  number  are  embarrass- 
ing to  the  hearer. 

There  are  two  sorts  of  divisions  which  we  may  properly  make :  the  first, 
which  is  the  most  common,  is  the  division  of  the  text  into  its  parts ;  the  other 
is  a  division  of  the  discourse,  or  sermon  itself. 

The  division  of  the  sermon  itself  is  proper  in  the  following  cases  :— 

1.  When  a  prophecy  of  the  Old  Testament  is  handled ;  for,  generally,  the  un- 
derstanding of  these  prophecies  depends  on  many  general  considerations,  which, 
by  exposing  and  refuting  false  senses,  open  a  way  to  the  true  explication. 

2.  When  a  text  is  connected  with  a  disputed  point,  the  understanding  of  which 
must  depend  on  the  state  of  the  question,  and  the  arguments  that  have  been  ad- 
vanced. All  these  lights  are  previously  necessary,  and  they  can  be  given  only  by 
general  considerations.  For  example,  Rom.  iii.,  28,—"  We  conclude  that  a  man 
is  justified  by  faith  without  the  deeds  of  the  law."  Some  general  considerations 
must  precede,  which  clear  up  the  state  of  the  question  between  St.  Paul  and  the 
Jews  touching  justiacation,  which  mark  the  hypothesis  of  the  Jews  upon  that 
subject,  and  which  discover  the  true  principle  that  St.  Paul  would  establish ; 
80  that,  in  the  end,  the  text  may  be  clearly  understood. 

3.  In  a  conclusion  drawn  from  a  long  preceding  discourse ;  as,  for  example, 
Rom.  v.,  i.,  "  Therefore,  being  justified  by  faith,  we  have  peace  with  God,  through 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ."  The  discourse  must  be  divided  into  two  parts:  the 
first  consisting  of  some  general  considerations  on  the  doctrine  of  justification, 
which  St.  Paul  establishes  in  the  preceding  chapters ;  and  the  second,  of  his  con- 
clusion, that,  being  thus  justified,  we  have  peace  with  God,  &c. 

4.  In  the  case  of  texts  quoted  in  the  New  Testament  from  the  Old.  Prove  by 
general  considerations  tliat  the  text  is  properly  produced,  and  then  proceod 
clearly  to  its  explication.  Of  this  kind  are  Hebrews  i.,  5,  6,  "  I  will  be  to  him  a 
Father,"  &c.  "  One  in  a  certain  place  testified,"  &c.,  ii.,  6.  "  Wherefore,  as 
the  Holy  Ghost  saith,"  &c.,  iii.,  7. 

5.  In  this  class  must  be  placed  divisions  into  different  views.  These,  to  speak 
properly,  are  not  divisions  of  a  text  into  its  parts ;  but  rather  different  applica- 
tions, which  are  made  of  the  same  texts  to  divers  suhjects.  Typical  texts  should 
be  divided  thus ;  and  a  great  number  of  passages  in  the  Psalms,  which  relate,  not 
only  to  David,  but  also  to  Christ :  such  should  be  considered  first  literally,  as  they 
relate  to  David ;  and  then  in  the  mystical  sense,  as  they  refer  to  the  Lord  Jesus. 

There  are  also  typical  passages,  which,  besides  their  literal  sense,  have  figu- 
rative meanings,  i-elating,  not  only  to  Jesus  Christ,  but  also  to  the  church  in  gen- 
eral, and  to  every  believer  in  particular.  For  example,  Dan.  Ix.,  7,  "  O  Lord, 
righteousness  belongeth  unto  thee,  but  unto  us  confusion  of  faces  as  at  this  day," 
must  not  be  divided  into  parts,  but  considered  in  different  views :  1.  In  regard 
to  all  men  in  general.  2.  In  regard  to  the  Jewish  Church  in  Daniel's  time.  3. 
In  regard  to  ourselves  at  the  present  day.  So,  again,  Heb.  iii.,  7,  8.,  "  To-day  if 
ye  will  hear  his  voice,"  which  is  taken  from  Psalm  xcv.,  cannot  be  better  divided 
than  by  referring  it,  1.  To  David's  time,    2.  To  St.  Paul's.    3.  To  our  own. 


390  SERMON- WRITING. 

As  to  the  division  of  the  text  itself,  sometimes  the  order  of  the  words  is  bo 
clear  and  natural,  that  no  division  is  necessary ;  we  need  only  follow  the  order 
in  question.  As,  for  example,  Eph.  1.,  3,  "Blessed  be  the  God  and  Father  of 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who  hath  blessed  us  with  all  spiritual  blessings  in  heav- 
enly places  in  Christ."  Here  the  words  divide  themselves,  and  to  explain  them 
we  need  only  follow  them.  A  grateful  acknowledgment,  "Blessed  be  God". 
The  title  under  which  the  Apostle  blesses  God,  "  The  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ".  The  reason  for  which  he  blesses  him,  because  "  he  hath  blessed  us  ". 
The  plenitude  of  this  blessing,  "  with  all  blessings  ".  The  nature  or  kind  signi- 
fied by  the  term  spirUual.  The  place  where  he  hath  blessed  us,  "  in  heavenly 
places  ".    In  whom  he  hath  blessed  us,  "  in  Christ ". 

Most  texts,  however,  ought  to  be  formally  divided;  for  which  purpose  we 
must  regard  chiefly  the  order  of  nature :  put  that  division  which  naturally  pre- 
cedes, in  the  first  place,  and  let  the  rest  follow  in  its  proper  order. 

There  are  two  natural  orders :  one  natural  in  regard  to  subjects  themselves ; 
the  other  natural  in  regard  to  us.  Though  in  general  you  may  follow  which  of 
the  two  you  please,  yet  there  are  some  texts  that  determine  the  division ;  as 
Phil,  ii.,  13,  "It  is  God  which  worketh  effectually  in  you  both  to  will  and  to  do 
of  his  good  pleasure."  There  are,  it  is  plain,  three  things  to  be  discussed:  the 
action  of  God's  grace  upon  men,  "  God  worketh  effectually  in  j'ou  " ;  the  efl'ect  of 
this  grace,  "  to  will  and  to  do  " ;  and  the  spring  or  source  of  the  action,  accord- 
ing to  "  his  good  pleasure  ",  I  think  the  division  would  not  be  proper,  if  we 
were  to  treat,  1.  Of  God's  good  pleasure ;  2.  Of  his  grace ;  and  3.  Of  the  will 
and  works  of  men. 

Above  all  things,  in  divisions,  avoid  introducing  any  thing  in  the  first  part 
which  implies  a  knowledge  of  the  second,  or  which  obliges  you  to  treat  of  the 
second  to  make  the  first  understood;  otherwise  you  will  be  obliged  to  make 
many  tedious  repetitions.  Endeavor  to  separate  your  parts  from  each  other  as 
well  as  you  can.  When  they  arc  veiy  closely  connected,  place  the  most  detached 
first,  and  make  that  serve  for  a  foundation  to  the  explication  of  the  second,  and 
the  second  to  the  third  ;  so  that,  at  the  conclusion,  the  hearer  may  at  a  glance 
perceive,  as  it  were,  a  perfect  body,  a  well-finished  building.  One  of  the  greatest 
merits  of  a  sermon  is  harmony  in  its  component  parts  ;  that  the  first  lead  natu- 
rally to  the  second,  the  second  to  the  third,  &c. ;  that  what  goes  before  excite  a 
desire  for  what  is  to  follow. 

When,  in  a  text,  there  are  several  terms  which  need  a  particular  ex- 
planation, and  which  can  not  be  explained  without  confusion,  or  without  divid- 
ing the  text  into  too  many  parts,  then  do  not  divide  the  text  at  all,  but  divide 
the  discourse  into  parts.  First  explain  the  tenns,  and  then  proceed  to  the  sub- 
ject itself. 

There  are  many  texts,  in  discussing  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  treat  of  eithei 
subject  or  attribute ;  but  all  the  discussion  turns  on  words  that  convey  no  mean- 
ing independently  of  other  terms,  and  which  arc  called  in  logic  syncategorematica. 
For  example,  John  iil.,  16,  "  God  so  loved  the  world,  that  he  gave  bis  only  begot- 
ten Son,  that  whosoever  believctb  in  him  should  not  perish,  but  have  everlasting 
life."  The  categorical  proposition  is,  God  loved  the  world;  yet,  it  is  necessary 
neither  to  insist  mnchupon  the  term  God,  nor  to  speak  in  a  commonplace  way  of 
the  divine  love.  The  text  should  be  divided  into  two  i)arts  :  first,  the  gift  which 
God  in  his  love  hath  made  of  his  Son;  secondly,  the  end  for  which  this  gift  was 
bestowed,  "  that  whosoever  bclievcth  in  him  should  not  perish,  but  have  ever- 
lasting life  ". 

There  arc  texts  of  reasoning  which  are  composed  of  an  objection  and  an  axh 


SEKMON-WRITING.  397 

ewer.  These  are  naturally  clivlded  into  the  objection  and  the  solution.  As,  Ro- 
mans vi.,  1,  2,  "  What  shall  we  say  then,"  &c. 

There  are  some  texts  of  reasoning  which  are  extremely  difficult  to  divide, 
because  they  can  not  be  extended  into  many  propositions  without  confusion. 
As,  John  iv.,  10,  "  If  thou  knewest  the  gift  of  God,"  &c.  Here  we  may  take  two 
heads  :  the  first  including  the  general  proposition  contained  in  the  words ;  the 
second,  the  particular  application  of  these  to  the  Samaritan  woman. 

There  are  some  texts  which  imply  many  important  truths  without  expressing 
them.  These  should  be  alluded  to  and  enlarged  upon.  In  such  cases,  the  text 
may  be  divided  into  two  parts  ;  one  referring  to  what  is  implied,  and  the  other 
to  what  is  expressed. 

Subdivisions  also  should  be  made,  for  they  are  of  great  assistance  to  the 
■writer;  they  need  not,  however,  be  mentioned  in  the  discourse. 

Methods  of  Discussion. 

These  are  four  in  number.  According  to  the  nature  of  the  subject,  one  or 
mo>e  may  be  employed.  Clear  subjects  must  be  discussed  by  observation  or 
continued  application ;  difficult  and  important  ones,  by  explication. 

Explication. — This  consists  in  explaining  the  terms  used,  or  the  subject,  or 
both.  There  are  two  sorts  of  explications :  the  one,  simple  and  plain,  needs  only 
to  be  proposed,  and  agreeably  elucidated;  the  other  must  be  confirmed,  if  it 
speak  of  fact,  by  proofs  of  fact ;  if  of  right,  by  proofs  of  right ;  if  of  both,  by 
proofs  of  both.  A  great  and  important  subject,  consisting  of  many  branches, 
may  be  reduced  to  a  certain  number  of  propositions  or  questions,  and  these  may 
be  discussed  one  after  the  other. 

I.  Explication  of  Terms.— Tha  difficulties  of  these  arise  from  three  causes : 
either  the  terms  do  not  seem  to  make  any  sense,  or  they  are  equivocal,  forming 
different  senses ;  or  the  sense  they  seem  to  make  at  first  appears  perplexed,  im- 
proper, or  contradictory;  or  the  meaning,  though  clear,  maybe  controverted, 
and  is  exposed  to  cavil.    First  propose  the  difficulty:  then  solve  it  briefly. 

What  we  have  to  explain  in  a  text  consists  of  one  or  more  simple  terms  ;  of 
ways  of  speaking  peculiar  to  Scripture ;  or  of  particles  called  syncategoi^ematica. 

1.  Simple  terms  are  the  divine  attributes,  goodness,  &c. ;  man's  virtues  or 
vices,  faith,  hope,  &c.  These  are  either  literal  or  figurative  ;  if  figurative,  give 
the  meaning  of  the  figure,  ajd,  without  stopping  long,  pass  on  to  the  thing  itself. 
Some  simple  terms  should  be  explained  only  so  far  as  they  bear  on  the  meaning 
of  the  sacred  author.  Sometimes  the  simple  terms  in  a  text  must  be  discussed 
at  length,  in  order  to  give  a  clear  and  full  view  of  the  subject. 

2.  Expressions  peculiar  to  Scripture  deserve  a  particular  explanation,  because 
they  are  rich  in  meaning ;  such  as,  "  to  be  in  Christ,"  "  come  after  Clirist,"  &c. 

3.  Particles  called  syncategvrematica  (such  as  /lone,  some,  aU^  now^  when,  &c.) 
which  augment  or  limit  the  meaning  of  the  proposition,  should  be  carefully 
examined,  for  often  the  whole  explication  depends  upon  them. 

II.  Exj)licationofthe  Subject— litha  difficulty  arise  from  errors,  or  false  senses, 
refute  and  remove  them  ;  then  establish  the  trath.  If  from  the  intricacy  of  the 
subject  itself,  do  not  propose  difficulties,  and  raise  objections,  but  enter  imme- 
diately into  the  explication  of  the  matter,  and  take  care  to  arrange  your  ideas  well. 

In  all  cases,  illustrate  by  reasons,  examples,  comparisons  of  the  subject ;  their 
relations,  conformities,  or  differences.  You  may  do  it  by  consequences ;  by  the 
person,  his  state,  «&c.,  who  proposes  the  subject ;  or  the  persons  to  whom  it  is 
proposed ;  by  circumstances,  time,  place,  &c. 

Observation.— This  method  is  best  for  clear  and  historical  passages.    Somo 


398  SEEMOX-WRITING. 

texts  require  both  explication  and  observation.  Sometimes  an  observation  may 
be  made  by  way  of  explication.  Observations,  for  the  most  part,  ought  to  be  thco- 
Io',dcal ;  liistorical,  philosophical,  or  critical,  very  seldom.  They  must  not  be  pro- 
posed in  a  scholastic  style  or  commonplace  form,  but  in  a  familiar  manner. 

Continual  Application. — This  method  may  be  entirely  free  from  explana- 
tions and  observations ;  it  is  appropriate  to  texts  exhorting  to  holiness. 

Proposition.— Texts  may  be  reduced  to  two  propositions  at  least,  and  three 
or  four  at  most,  having  a  mutual  dependence  and  connection.  This  method 
opens  the  most  extensive  field  for  discussion.  In  the  former  modes  of  discussion 
you  are  restrained  to  your  text,  but  here  your  subject  is  the  matter  contained  in 
your  proposition. 

Peroration,  or  Conclusion. 

This  ought  to  be  short,  lively,  and  animating ;  full  of  great  and  beautiful  fi<j- 
nres,  aiming  to  move  Christian  affections,— to  confirm  our  love  of  God,  our  grati- 
tude, zeal,  repentance,  self-condemnation,  consolation,  hope  of  felicity,  courage, 
constancy  in  affliction,  and  steadiness  in  temptation.  Let  some  one  or  more 
striking  ideas,  not  mentioned  in  the  discuBsion,  be  reserved  for  this  part,  and 
applied  with  vigor. 

analysis  op  a  sermon. 

Tlie  Existence  of  God. 

"  The  fool  hath  said  in  his  heart,  there  is  no  God."    Psalms  xiv.,  1. 

''  The  fool  hath  said,"— it  is  evident  that  none  but  a  fool  would  have  said  it. 

The  fool,  a  term  in  Scripture  signifying  a  wicked  man ;  one  who  hath  lost  his 
wisdom,  and  right  apprehension  of  God ;  one  dead  in  sin. 

"  Said  in  his  heart "  ;  i.  e.,  he  thinks,  or  he  doubts,  or  he  wishes.  He  daro 
not  openly  publish  it,  though  he  dare  secretly  think  it. 

"  There  is  no  God,"— no  judge,  no  one  to  govern,  reward,  or  punish.  Those 
who  deny  the  providence  of  God,  do  in  effect  deny  his  existence ;  they  strip  him 
of  that  wisdom,  goodness,  mercy,  and  justice,  which  are  the  glory  of  the  Deity. 

The  existence  of  God  is  the  foundation  of  all  religion.  The  whole  building 
totters,  if  the  foundation  be  out.  We  must  believe  that  he  is,  and  that  he  is  what 
he  has  declared  himself,  before  we  can  seek  him,  adore  him,  or  love  him. 

It  is,  therefore,  necessary  we  should  know  why  wo  believe,  that  our  belief  be 
founded  on  undeniable  evidence,  and  that  we  may  give  a  better  reason  for  his 
existence,  than  that  we  have  heard  our  parents  and  teachers  tell  of  it.  It  is  as 
much  as  to  say,  "  There  is  no  God,"  when  wo  have  no  better  arguments  than 
those.    Let  us  look  at  the  evidences  which  should  establish  us  in  the  truth. 

I.  All  nature  shows  the  existence  of  its  Maker.  We  can  not  open  our  eyes  but 
we  discover  this  truth  shining  through  all  creatures.  The  whole  universe  bears 
the  character  and  stamp  of  a  First  Cause,  infinitely  wise,  infinitely  powerful.  Let 
us  cast  our  eyes  on  the  earth  which  beare  us,  and  ask,  "  Who  laid  the  founda- 
tion ?  "  Job  xxxviii..  4.  Let  us  look  on  that  vast  arch  of  skies  that  covers  us, 
and  inquire,  "  Who  hath  thus  stretched  It  forth  ?  "  Isaiah  xl.,  21,  23.  "  Who  is 
it  also  who  hath  fl.xed  so  many  luminous  bodies  with  so  much  order  and  regu- 
larity?" Job  xxvi.,  13.  Every  plant,  every  atom,  as  well  as  every  star,  bears 
witness  of  a  Deity.  Who  ever  saw  statues,  or  pictures,  but  concluded  there  had 
been  a  statuary  and  limner?  Who  can  behold  garments,  ships,  or  houses,  and 
not  understand  there  was  a  weaver,  a  carpenter,  an  architect  ?  A  man  may  as 
well  doubt  whether  there  bo  a  sun,  when  ho  sees  his  beams  gilding  the  earth,  as 
doubt  whether  tlierc  be  a  Cod,  when  ho  sees  his  works.  Psalms  xix.,  1-6.  Tbo 
Atheist  is,  therefore,  a  fool,  because  he  denies  that  which  every  creature  in  his 


sEEMON-WEirma.  399 

constitution  asserts.  Can  he  behold  the  spider's  net,  or  the  silk-worm's  web, 
the  bee's  closets,  or  the  ant's  granaries,  without  acknowledging  a  higher  being 
than  a  creature,  who  hath  planted  that  genius  in  them  ?  Job  xxxix.  Psalms 
civ.,  24.    All  the  stars  in  heaven  and  the  dust  on  earth,  oppose  the  Atheist. 

II.  The  'power  of  conscience  is  an  argument  to  convince  us  of  this  truth. 
''  Every  one  that  flndeth  me  shall  slay  me,"  Genesis  iv.,  14,  was  the  language  of 
Cain ;  and  similar  apprehensions  are  frequent  in  those  who  feel  the  fury  of  an 
enraged  conscience.  The  psalmist  tells  us  concerning  those  who  say  in  their 
heart  "  There  is  no  God  ",  that  "  they  are  in  fear  where  no  fear  is."  Psalms  liii., 
5.  Their  guilty  minds  invent  terrors,  and  thereby  confess  a  Deity,  while  they 
deny  it,— that  there  is  a  sovereign  Being  who  will  punish.  Pashur,  who  wicked- 
ly insulted  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  had  this  for  his  reward,  "  that  his  name  should 
be  Magor-missabib,"  i.  e,,  "fear  round  about".  Jeremiah  xx.,  3,  4.  When 
Belshazzar  saw  the  handwriting,  "  his  countenance  was  changed,"  Daniel  v.,  G. 
The  apostle  who  tells  us  that  there  is  a  " law  written  in  the  hearts  of  men", 
Qdds,  their  "consciences  also  bear  witness."    Romans  ii.,  15. 

ni.  Universal  consent  is  another  argument.  The  notion  of  a  God  is  found 
among  all  nations,  however  barbarous ;  it  is  the  language  of  every  country  and 
region ;  the  most  abominable  idolatry  argues  a  Deity. 

IV.  Extraordinary  judgments.  When  a  just  revenge  follows  abominable 
crimes,  especially  when  the  judgment  is  suited  to  the  sin ;  when  the  sin  is  made 
legible  by  the  inflicted  judgment.  "  The  Lord  is  known  by  the  judgment  which 
he  executeth."  Psalms  ix.,  16.  Herod  Agrippa  received  the  flattering  applause 
of  the  people,  and  thought  himself  a  God ;  but  was,  by  the  judgment  inflicted 
upon  him,  forced  to  confess  another.  Acts  xii.,  21-23 ;  Judges  i.,  6,  7 ;  Acts  v.,  1-10. 

V.  Accomplishment  of  proi^Jieeies.  To  foretell  things  that  are  future,  as  if 
they  already  existed  or  had  existed  long  ago,  must  be  the  result  of  a  mind  in- 
finitely intelligent.  "  Show  the  things  that  are  to  come  hereafter."  Isaiah  xli., 
23.  "  I  am  God,  declaring  the  end  from  the  beginning."  Isaiah  xlvi.,  9, 10.  Cyras 
was  prophesied  of,  Isaiah  xliv.,  23,  and  xlv.,  1,  long  before  he  was  born ;  Alexan- 
der's sight  of  Daniel's  prophecy  concerning  his  victories,  moved  him  to  spare 
Jerusalem.  The  four  monarchies  were  plainly  deciphered  in  Daniel,  before  the 
fourth  rose  up.  That  power  which  foretells  things  beyond  the  wit  of  man,  and 
orders  causes  to  bring  about  those  predictions,  must  be  infinite  and  omniscient. 

What  folly,  then,  for  any  to  shut  their  eyes,  and  stop  their  ears ;  to  attribute 
those  things  to  bliq^  chance,  which  nothing  less  than  an  infinitely  wise  and 
powerful  Being  could  eft'ect ! 

Peroration^  or  Conclusion. 

I.  If  God  can  be  seen  in  creation,  study  the  creatures;  the  creatures  are  the 
heralds  of  God's  glory.  "  The  glory  of  the  Lord  shall  endure."  Psalms  civ.,  31. 
The  world  is  a  sacred  temple ;  man  is  introduced  to  contemplate  it.  Grace  does 
not  destroy  nature,  nor  does  the  book  of  redemption  blot  out  the  book  of  creation. 

II.  If  it  be  a  folly  to  deny  or  doubt  the  being  of  God,  is  it  not  a  folly  also  not 
to  worship  God  when  we  acknowledge  his  existence  ?  "  To  fear  God,  and  keep 
his  commandments,  is  the  whole  duty  of  man."  We  are  not  reasonable  if  we  are 
not  religious.    Romans  xii.,  1. 

III.  If  it  be  a  folly  to  deny  the  existence  of  God,  will  it  not  be  our  wisdom, 
since  we  acknowledge  his  being,  often  to  think  of  him?  It  is  said  of  the  fool 
only,  "  God  is  not  in  all  his  thoughts."    Psalms  x.,  4. 

IV.  If  we  believe  the  being  of  God,  let  us  abhor  practical  atheism.  Men's 
practices  are  the  best  indexes  to  their  principles.  "  Let  your  light  shine  before 
men."    Matthew  v.,  16. 


PART  y. 

POETICAL    COMPOSITION. 
LESSON   CV. 

VBESE.  —  QUANTITY. — FEET. — METRES. 

§  474.  Strictly  speaking,  those  compositions  only  fall 
under  the  head  of  poetry,  into  which  the  language  of  the 
imagination  largely  enters;  which  abound  in  metaphors, 
similes,  personifications,  and  other  rhetorical  figures.  Such 
writings,  even  if  they  have  the  form  of  prose,  must  be  re- 
garded as  poems;  while,  on  the  other  hand, prosaic  matter, 
even  if  put  into  the  form  in  which  poetry  generally  appears, 
is  still  nothing  more  than  prose.  The  distinction  between 
prose  and  poetry,  therefore,  has  reference  to  the  matter  of 
which  they  are  respectively  composed. 

Poetry  being  the  language  of  imagination  and  passion,  vtc  naturally 
expect  to  find  in  it  more  figures  than  in  prose.  These,  having  been  al- 
ready fully  treated,  need  no  further  consideration  here.  As  regards  its 
form,  poetry  is  generally  characterized  by  deviations  from  the  natural 


S  474.  What  compoeltions  fall  under  the  head  of  poetry  ?    To  what  docs  the 
distinction  between  proso  and  poetrj  refer?    What  do  we  naturally  expect  to 


VEESE.  401 

order  and  mode  of  expression,  which  are  known  as  poetical  licenses. 
Examples  of  some  of  these  follow  : — 

I.  Violent  inversions. 

"Now  storming  fury  rose, 
And  clamor  such  as  heard  in  Heaven  till  now 
Was  never.'''' 

II.  Violent  ellipses. 

"  While  all  those  souls  \thM\  have  ever  felt  the  forc« 
Of  those  enchanting  passions,  to  my  lyre 
Should  throng  attentive." 

III.  The  use  of  peculiar  words,  idioms,  phrases,  &c.,  not  generally 
^ound  in  prose  ;  as,  morn.,  eve,  o'er,  sheen,  passing  rich. 

IV.  Connecting  an  adjective  with  a  different  substantive  from  that 
which  it  really  qualifies  ;  as  in  the  following  lines,  in  which  wide  is  joined 
to  nature  instead  of  hounds : — 

"  Through  wide  nature's  hounds 
Expatiate  with  glad  step." 

V.  Using  a  noun  and  a  pronoun  standing  for  it  [in  violation  of  a  syn- 
tactical rule]  as  subjects  or  objects  of  the  same  verb ;  as, 

"  The  boy— oh  1  where  was  he  ?  " 

VI.  The  use  of  or  for  either,  and  nor  for  ncitJier. 

"  Whate'er  thy  name,  or  Muse  or  Grace." 

"  Nor  earth  nor  Heaven  shall  hear  his  prayer." 

VII.  The  introduction  of  an  adverb  between  to,  the  sign  of  the  infini- 
tive,  and  the  verb  with  which  it  is  connected  ;  as, 

*'  To  slowly  trace  the  forest's  shady  scene." 

VIII.  Making  intransitive  verbs  transitive  ;  as, 

"  Still,  in  harmonious  intercourse,  they  lived 
The  rural  day,  and  talked  the  flowing  heart." 

IX.  The  use  of  foreign  idioms ;  as, 

"  To  some  she  gave 
To  search  the  story  of  eternal  thought." 

§  475.  Verse  is  the  form  in  which  poetry  generally  ap- 
pears. It  consists  of  language  arranged  into  metrical  lines, 
called  verses,  of  a  length  and  rhythm  determined  by  rules 

find  in  poetry  ?    What  is  meant  by  poetical  licenses  ?    Enumerate  the  poetical 
licenses  mentioned  in  the  text,  and  give  an  example  of  each. 

§  475.  What  is  verse  ?    Of  what  does  it  generally  consist  ?    What  is  the  differ- 


402  VEESE. 

which  usage  has  sanctioned.     The  distinction  between  prose 
and  verse  is,  therefore,  a  matter  of  form. 

Verse  is  merely  the  dress  which  poetry  generally  assumes.  The  two 
are  entirely  independent  of  each  other :  all  poetry  is  not  verse,  as  we  see 
in  the  case  of  Fcnelon's  Telemachus  and  Ossian's  Poems ;  nor,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  all  verse  by  any  means  poetry,  as  nine  tenths  of  the  fugitive  pieces 
given  to  the  world  under  the  latter  name  abundantly  show. 

Versification  is  the  art  of  making  verses. 

A  Verse,  as  we  have  seen,  is  a  metrical  line  of  a  length 
and  rhythm  determined  by  rules  which  usage  has  sanctioned. 

A  Hemistich  is  half  of  a  verse. 

Rhyme  is  a  similarity  of  sound  in  syllables  which  begin 
differently  but  end  alike.  It  is  exemplified  at  the  close  of 
the  following  lines : — 

"  Self-love,  the  spring  of  motion,  acts  the  soul ; 
Reason's  comparing  balance  rules  the  whole.^^ 

A  Distich,  or  Couplet,  consists  of  two  verses  rhyming 
together ;  the  lines  just  given  are  an  example. 

A  Triplet  consists  of  three  verses  rhyming  together ;  as, 

"  Souls  that  can  scarce  ferment  their  mass  of  clay, — 
So  drossy,  so  divisible,  are  they. 
As  would  but  serve  pure  bodies  for  allay." 

A  Stanza  [often  incorrectly  called  a  verse]  is  a  regular 
division  of  a  poem,  consisting  of  two  or  more  lines,  or  verses. 
Stanzas  are  of  every  conceivable  variety,  their  formation 
being  regulated  by  the  taste  of  the  poet  alone.  The  stanzas 
of  the  same  poem,  however,  should  be  unifonn. 

§  47G.  Syllables  occurring  in  verse  are  distinguished  as 
long  and  short,  according  to  the  time  occupied  in  uttering 
them.     A  long  syllable  is  equivalent  to  two  short  ones. 


eiicc  between  verso  and  poetry  ?  What  is  voraificalion?  What  is  a  verse  ?  What 
is  a  hemistich  ?  AVliat  is  rhyme  ?  What  is  a  distich  ?  What  Is  a  triplet  ?  What 
18  a  stanza?  Wliat  is  it  often  incorrectly  cnllcd?  By  what  is  the  formation  of 
the  stanza  regulated  ?    What  is  said  of  the  stanzas  of  the  same  poem  ? 

§470.  Ilowarc  syllables  occurring  in  verse  distinguished?    On  what  is  this 
distiuction  founded ?    How  is  the  quantity  of  a  syllable  indicated ?    In  words  of 


QUANTITY.  403 

When  it  is  desired  to  indicate  the  quantity,  the  macron  [— ] 
is  placed  over  a  long  syllable,  and  the  breve  [^1  over  a  short 
one ;  as,  the  man. 

In  words  of  more  than  one  syllable,  accent,  whether  primary  or 
secondary,  constitutes  length ;  syllables  that  are  miaccented  are  short. 
In  the  case  of  monosyllables,  nouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  adverbs,  and  in- 
terjections, are  for  the  most  part  long  ;  articles  are  always  short ;  prepo- 
sitions  and  conjunctions  are  generally  short ;  pronouns  are  long  when 
emphasized, — when  not,  short.  This  will  appear  from  the  following 
lines : — 

ThS  goddess  heard,  and  Lade  the  MOses  rSiee 

ThS  golden  trumpSt  6f  eternal  praise : 

Fr5m  pole  t5  pOle  the  winds  diffiise  the  sotod, 

That  fills  the  circuit  5f  thS  wOrld  arotind. 

In  Latin  and  Greek,  each  syllable  has  a  definite  quantity,  without 
reference  to  accent.  This  is  not  the  case  in  English.  Our  vowel  sounds 
have  nothing  to  do  with  the  length  or  shortness  of  syllables.  Fat,  in 
which  a  has  its  flat  or  short  sound,  is  as  likely  to  be  accented,  and  there- 
fore long,  in  poetry,  as  fate,  in  which  the  sound  of  the  vowel  is  generally 
called  long. 

§  477.  A  Foot  is  a  division  of  a  verse,  consisting  of  two 
or  three  syllables. 

The  dissyllabic  feet  are  four  in  number,  as  follows : — 

Iambus  ^-^  — ,  remove.  I        Spondee ,  dark  night. 

Trochee  —  -w,  moving.  |        Pyrrhic^-'  >-',  hap-j  pily. 

The  trisyllabic  feet  are  eight  in  number,  as  follows : — 


Anapest  v-'  s-'  — ,  intervene. 
Dactyl  —  --''-',  happily. 
AMPniBRAcn  w  —  >--,  redundant. 
Amphimacer  —  >— '  — ,  winding-sheet. 


Bacchius  ^^ ,  the  dark  night. 

Antibacchius ^-'j  eye-servant. 

MoLOSSUs ,  long  dark  night. 

Tribrach  -~^^^-^,  insu-|  perablo. 


Of  these  twelve  feet,  the  iambus,  the  trochee,  the  ana- 
pest, and  the  dactyl,  are  oftenest  used;  and  are  capable, 

more  than  one  syllable,  which  syllables  are  long,  and  which  short  ?  In  the  case 
of  monosyllables,  which  of  the  parts  of  speech  are  generally  long,  and  which  are 
short  ?  What  is  the  case  in  Latin  and  Greek,  with  respect  to  the  quantity  of 
syllables  ?  What  relation  subsists  in  English  between  the  quantity  of  syllables 
and  the  sound  of  the  vowels  they  contain  ?    Illustrate  this. 

§477.  What  is  a  foot?  How  many  dissyllabic  feet  are  there?  Enumerate 
them,  state  of  what  syllables  they  are  respectively  composed,  and  give  an  exam- 
ple of  each.  How  many  trisyllabic  feet  are  there  ?  Enumerate  them,  state  of 
what  syllables  they  are  composed,  and  give  an  example  of  each.    Of  these  twelve 


404  METRES,   OR  MEASURES. 

respectively,  without  the  assistance  of  the  rest,  of  forming 
distinct  orders  of  numbers.  They  are,  therefore,  called 
primary  feet ;  and  the  measures  of  which  they  respectively 
form  the  chief  component  part,  are  known  as  iamhic,  trochaic, 
anapestic,  and  dactylic.  A  line  which  consists  wholly  of  one 
kind  of  foot  is  called  ^^WT'e  .*  that  is,  a  line  containing  nothing 
but  iambi  is  a  pure  iambic  ;  one  into  which  no  foot  but  the 
trochee  enters  is  a  pure  trochaic.  Verses  not  consisting  ex- 
clusively of  one  kind  of  foot  are  said  to  be  mixed.  Exam- 
ples follow : — 

1.  Pure  Iambic. — The  rul-|ing  p58-[sJon  c0n-Iqu6i*8  rea-json  still. 

2.  Ftire  Trochaic. — Sistor  |  spirit  |  come  il-|wriy. 

8.  Pure  Anapestic. — From  tho  plains,  |frorathe  wood- j lands  and  gruves. 
4.  Pure  Dactylic. — Bird  of  the  |  wilderness. 

1.  Mixed  Iambic. — No  crime  \  was  thine  |  i//-/a-[ted  filir. 

2.  Mixed  Trochaic. — Trembling,  |  hoping,  |  lingering,  \  fly'Ing. 

3.  Mixed  Ana}iestic. — Dear  re-|gions  of  si-jlence  and  shade. 

4.  Mixed  Dacf'ilic. — MidnTght  as-|s7s^  our  mOan. 

The  remaining  eight  feet  are  called  secondary,  and  arc 
occasionally  admitted  for  the  sake  of  preventing  monotony 
and  allowing  the  poet  freer  scope. 

§  478.  By  Metre,  or  Measure,  is  meant  the  sj'stem  ac- 
cording to  which  verses  are  formed.  Tlie  metre  depends  on 
the  character  and  number  of  the  feet  employed.  According 
to  the  character  of  the  feet,  metres,  we  have  already  seen, 
are  distinguished  as  iambic,  trochaic,  anapestic,  and  dactylic. 
According  to  the  number  of  the  feet,  the  varieties  of  metre 
are  as  follows :  Monometer,  or  a  measure  composed  of  one 
foot ;  Dimeter,  of  two  feet ;  Trimeter,  of  three  ;  Tetrameter, 
of  four ;  Pentameter,  of  five ;  Hexameter,  of  six ;  Heptam- 
cter,  of  seven ;  Octometer,  of  eight. 

A  line  at  the  end  of  which  a  syllabic  is  wanting  to  com- 
plete the  measure,  is  said  to  be  catalectic.     One  in  which 


feet,  which  are  oftcnest  used  ?  What  name  is  given  to  these  four  ?  Wliy  ?  \N'hat 
are  the  measures  of  which  tliey  respectively  form  tlie  chief  component  part, 
called  ?  What  is  meant  hy  a  pure  Iambic  lino  ?  What,  by  a  mixed  ?  Enumerate 
the  secondary  feet.    For  what  purpose  are  they  occasionally  admitted  ? 

§  478.  What  1b  meant  by  metre,  or  measure  ?   On  what  does  the  metro  depend  ? 
According  to  the  character  of  the  feet,  what  arc  the  varieties  of  metre?    Wliat, 


405 

there  is  a  syllable  over  at  the  end,  is  called  hypercatalectic. 
When  there  is  neither  deficiency  nor  redundancy,  a  line  is 
said  to  be  acatalectic. 

Scanning  is  the  process  of  dividing  a  line  into  the  feet  of 
which  it  is  composed. 

§  479.  Examples  of  the  different  measures  follow.  Some 
of  the  lines  are  pure,  and  some  are  mixed.  The  figures  1,  2, 
3,  (fee,  respectively  denote  monometer,  dimeter,  trimeter,  &c. 
Vertical  lines  mark  some  of  the  divisions  into  feet.  Scan- 
ning is  performed  by  pronouncing  the  syllables  which  con- 
stitute the  successive  feet,  and  after  each  mentioning  its 
name.  Thus,  in  scanning  the  fifth  line,  the  following  words 
v.'ould  be  employed :  ^^ Honor,  trochee ;  and  shame,  iambus ; 
from  no,  iambus ;  cqndi-,  iambus ;  tion  rise,  iambus."  The 
line  is  mixed  iamhie  pentameter  acatalectic.  The  student 
is  requested  to  scan  the  following  lines,  and  name  the 
measure  of  each : — 

IAMBIC   MEASURES. 

1.  LCchiel  1 

2.  Th6  main  I  |  thS  main  ! 

3.  FQr  tis  |  th6  8tlm-|mSr3  shine. 

4.  First  stands  |  thg  nO-|ble  Wash-|Ingt8n. 

5.  Honor  |  and  shame  |  from  no  |  condi-|tion  rise. 

6,  With  his  sharp-pointed  head  he  dealeth  deadly  wounds. 
•?.  Over  the  Alban  mountains  high,  the  light  of  morning  broke. 

8.  0  all  ye  people,  clap  your  hands,  and  with  triumphant  voices  siUjJf. 

TROCHAIC   MEASURES. 

1.  Turning. 
2.  F5ar  stir- 1  rounds  mS, 
3.  D6ar6r  |  friSnds  ca-|r5ss  theS. 
4.  Honor's  |  but  an  |  empty  |  bubble. 

5.  Chains  of  care  to  lower  earth  enthrall  me. 

6.  Up  the  dewy  mountain.  Health  is  bounding  lightly. 

7.  Hasten,  Lord,  to  rescue  me,  and  set  me  safe  from  trouble. 

8.  Once  upon  a  midnight  dreary,  while  I  pondered  weak  and  weary. 

ANAPESTIC   MEASURES. 

1.  When  hS  winks. 
2.  LSt  thg  8tQ-|p!d  bS  gr5ve. 
3.  HQw  thS  nlght-lingaies  w5r-ibie  their  lOves  1 
4.  ThS  plCn-ltlfiil  molst-liire  Sncflm-lbSred  thS  flower  1 


according  to  the  number  of  the  feet  ?    What  is  meant  by  a  catalectic  line  ?  What, 
by  a  hypcrcatftlectic  line  ?    What,  by  an  acatalectic  line  ?    What  is  scanning  ? 


406  METRES,  OR  MEASURES. 

DACTYLIC  MEASURES. 

1.  Think  Of  It 
2.  Rash  and  tin-|dtltlfm. 
3.  Brighter  thSn  |  eammCr's  greSn  |  cSrpStlng. 
4.  Cold  is  thy  heart,  and  as  frozen  as  charity. 
5.  Land  of  the  beautiful,  land  of  the  generous,  hail  to  thee ! 
6.  Land  of  the  beautiful,  land  of  the  generous,  hail  to  thee  heartily  1 
7.  Out  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ  shall  be  gathered  by  angels  o'er  Satan  victorioue. 

CATALECTIC    MEASURES. 

Almost  any  of  the  above  metres  may  be  made  a  syllable  shorter,  and 
thus  become  catalectic.     The  following  will  serve  as  specimens : — 

1.  Iamb.  Tetram.  Cat.—T6-&S.j  |  nO  axe  |  Is  Tlng-\ing. 

2.  Tro.  Tetram.  Cat.— Mother  |  darksOme,  |  mOth6r  |  drMd. 

8.  Dact.  Tetram.  Ca^.— Hark,  h6w  Crg-iatiOn's  deCp  |  mQsIcai  |  cMr&s. 
4.  Ti'O.  Tetram.  Ca^— Heaving,  |  tipwfird  1 15  thg  |  light. 

HYPERCATALECTIC   MEASURES. 

The  addition  of  a  syllable  to  any  of  the  acatalectic  varieties  of  metre 
makes  them  hypercatalectic.  Specimens  follow.  From  the  first  two 
lines  it  will  be  seen,  that,  in  iambic  and  trochaic  metres,  a  verse  ending 
with  an  odd  syllable  may  be  regarded  either  as  a  higher  measure  cata- 
lectic, or  a  lower  measure  hypercatalectic. 

1.  lami).  Trim.  Hyp.—Tli-d&j  |  nO  axe  |  Is  rlng-ltn^-. 

2.  Tro.  Trim.  Hijp.— Mother  |  darksGme,  I  mOthgr  |  driad. 

8.  Amp.  Tetr.  Hi/p.—'Tis  th6  chief  I  Of  G16na-|ra  ISmSnts  |  fOr  Ws  6&r-\nng. 
4.  Dact.  Mon.  Hyp.—L\ii  h&r  with  |  cdre. 


LESSON  CVI. 

STANZAS. — SONNETS. — HEROIC    VERSE. — BLANK  VERSE. 

§  480.  Iambic  measures  constitute  the  great  body  of  our 
poetry,  both  from  the  fact  that  they  are  easier  of  construe- 
tion  than  any  other,  and  because  there  is  no  emotion  which 
they  are  not  adapted  to  express.  Trochaic  measures  are 
peculiarly  appropriate  to  gay  and  tender  sentiments ;  ana- 
pestic,  to  what  is  animated,  forcible,  or  heart-stirring.     Dac- 

§480.  Of  what  measures  does  the  great  body  of  our  poetry  consist?  Whatrea. 
eons  arc  given  for  this  ?  To  what  arc  trochaic  measures  appropriate  ?  To  what, 
ftuapcBtic  ?    What  is  said  of  dactylic  verse  ? 


STAITZAS.  407 

tylic  verse  is  the  most  difficult  to  write,  and  enters  into  our 
poetical  literature  to  such  a  limited  extent  that  its  capacities 
can  hardly  be  properly  estimated.  It  is  effective  whenever 
a  rapid  movement  is  desirable,  and  has  been  used  with  suc- 
cess in  humorous  poetry. 

§  481.  It  was  observed  in  the  last  lesson  that  lines  may 
be  combined  into  an  infinite  variety  of  stanzas,  according  to 
the  poet's  taste.  To  illustrate  all  of  these  with  examples  is 
impracticable ;  we  can  allude  only  to  those  that  most  fre- 
quently occur. 

The  commonest  stanza,  perhaps,  consists  of  four  lines,  of  which  either 
the  first  and  third,  and  the  second  and  fourth,  rhyme  together  ;  or,  the 
first  and  second,  and  the  third  and  fourth ;  as  follows : — 

"  The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 
The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea ; 
The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me."— Gray. 

"  The  Assyrian  came  down  like  a  wolf  on  the  fold. 
And  his  cohorts  were  gleaming  in  purple  and  gold ; 
And  the  sheen  of  their  spears  was  like  stars  on  the  sea, 
When  the  blue  wave  rolls  nightly  on  deep  Galilee."— Byron. 

This  stanza,  when  composed  of  iambic  tetrameters,  rhyming  either 
consecutively  or  alternately,  is  known  as  Long  Metre : — 

"  O  all  ye  people,  clap  your  hands. 
And  with  triiunphant  voices  sing ; 
No  force  the  mighty  power  withstands 
Of  God,  the  imiversal  King."— Psalms  of  David. 

When  the  first  and  third  lines  are  iambic  tetrameters,  and  the  second 
and  fourth  iambic  trimeters,  the  rhyme  being  alternate  or  confined  to  the 
two  last  mentioned,  this  four-lined  stanza  becomes  Common  Metre : — 

"  Over  the  Alban  mountains  high 
The  light  of  morning  broke ; 
From  all  the  roofs  of  the  Seven  Hills 
Curled  the  thin  wreaths  of  smoke."— Maoaulay. 

When  all  the  lines  of  this  stanza  are  iambic  trimeters  except  the  third. 


§  481.  Describe  the  commonest  stanza  met  with  in  poetry.  Give  examples  of 
it  from  Gray  and  Byron.  Describe  long  metre ;  common  metre ;  short  metre. 
To  what  are  these  three  metres  peculiarly  adapted,  and  for  what  are  they  there- 
fore employed  ?  In  what  other  way  may  long  and  common  metre  be  written  ? 
What  is  the  regular  ballad-measure  of  our  language  ?    How  are  stanzas  of  eight 


408  STANZAS. 

and  that  is  tetrameter,  the  rhyme  being  the  same  as  in  the  last  case,  we 
have  Short  Metre. 

"  The  day  is  past  and  gone ; 
The  evening  shades  appear  ; 
Oh !  may  we  all  remember  well 
The  night  of  death  draws  near."— Htmn-book. 

These  three  metres  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  slow  and  solemn  music, 
and  hence  are  generally  employed,  in  preference  to  others,  in  the  compo- 
sition of  psalms  and  hymns.  By  a  comparison  of  the  last  two  examples 
but  one,  with  numbers  7  and  8  of  the  iambic  measures  presented  at  the 
close  of  the  preceding  lesson,  it  will  be  seen  that  long  metre  is  simply 
iambic  octometer  divided  into  two  equal  parts,  while  common  metre  is 
iambic  heptametcr  divided  after  the  first  four  feet.  The  latter  is  the 
regular  ballad-measure  of  our  language.  Octometer  and  heptameter,  on 
account  of  their  length,  are  generally  thus  divided  into  two  separate  lines. 

The  four-lined  stanza  doubled  and  trebled  makes  effective  and  com- 
mon stanzas  of  eight  and  twelve  lines  respectively. 

Six-lined  stanzas  are  often  used.  Some  of  these  have  their  first  and 
second  lines  rhyme,  their  third  and  sixth,  and  their  fourth  and  fifth.  In 
others,  the  first  four  lines  rhyme  as  in  the  four-lined  stanza,  and  the  last 
two  rhyme  with  each  other ;  as,  in  the  following : — 

"  Friend  after  friend  departs  ; 

Who  has  not  lost  a  friend  ? 
There  is  no  union  here  of  hearts, 

That  finds  not  here  an  end  ; 
Were  this  frail  world  our  final  rest, 
Living  or  dying,  none  were  blest."— Montgomert. 

The  most  noted  of  all  stanzas  is  the  Spenserian,  so  called  from  the 
author  of  "  The  Faery  Queen ",  by  whom  it  was  borrowed  from  Italian 
poetry.  Though  highly  artificial,  in  the  hands  of  a  master  it  has  a  fine 
effect.  Its  difficulty  has  deterred  most  of  our  later  poets  from  attempt- 
ing it  in  pieces  of  any  length  ;  Thomson,  however,  in  his  "  Castle  of  In- 
dolence", Beattie  in  "The  Minstrel",  and  Byron  in"Childe  Harold", 
have  used  it  with  success.  The  following  from  Byron  will  serve  as  a 
specimen  ;  it  will  be  seen  that  it  consists  of  nine  lines,  of  which  eight  are 
iambic  pentameter,  while  the  last  is  a  hexameter : — 

and  twelve  lines  formed  ?  Wliat  are  the  difl'crout  ways  of  rhyming  in  six-lined 
stanzas  ?  Repeat  a  eix-lined  stanza  from  Montgomery.  What  is  the  most  noted 
of  all  stanzas?  Whence  was  it  borrowed?  What  is  said  of  its  effect?  Wh.u 
has  deterred  our  later  poets  from  attempting  it  ?  Who  have  used  it  with  the  bt'^t 
euccoss  ?  Of  how  many  lines  does  it  consist  ?  What  measure  are  they  ?  licpcat 
one  of  Byron's  Spenserian  stanzas. 


THE   SONNET.  409 

"  To  sit  on  rocks,  to  muse  o'er  flood  and  fell. 
To  slowly  trace  the  forest's  shady  scene, 
Where  things  that  own  not  man's  dominion  dwell. 

And  mortal  foot  hath  ne'er  or  rarely  been  ; 
To  climb  the  trackless  mountain  all  unseen, 

With  the  wild  flock,  that  never  needs  a  fold ; 
Alone,  o'er  steeps  and  foaming  falls  to  lean  ; — 
This  is  not  solitude ;  'tis  but  to  hold 
Converse  with  Nature's  charms,  and  view  her  stores  unrolled." 

§  482.  The  Sonnet,  though  not  a  stanza,  inasmuch  as  it 
is  a  complete  poem  in  itself,  will  next  be  considered ;  its  dis- 
tinguishing features  having  reference,  not  so  much  to  the 
matter  it  contains,  as  to  the  form  it  assumes,  and  the  pecu- 
liar manner  in  which  its  lines  rhyme. 

Everett,  in  his  comprehensive  and  thorough  "System  of  English 
Versification  ",  thus  describes  the  Sonnet : — "  The  Sonnet,  like  the  Spen- 
serian stanza,  was  borrowed  from  the  Italians.  Petrarch  is  reckoned  the 
father  of  it.  It  is  still  more  difficult  of  construction  than  the  Spenserian 
stanza ;  for,  besides  requiring  a  great  number  of  rhymes,  it  demands  a 
terseness  of  construction,  and  a  point  in  the  thought,  which  that  does 
not.  In  the  Sonnet,  no  line  should  be  admitted  merely  for  ornament,  and 
the  versification  should  be  faultless.  Sonnets,  like  Spenserian  stanzas, 
are  somewhat  affected ;  and  this  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  age  in  which 
they  were  introduced,  when  far-fetched  thoughts  and  ingenious  ideas  were 
more  in  vogue  than  simplicity  and  natural  expression. — The  Sonnet  is 
subject  to  more  rigorous  rules  than  any  other  species  of  verse.  It  is 
composed  of  exactly  fourteen  lines,  so  constructed  that  the  first  eight 
lines  shall  contain  but  two  rhymes,  and  the  last  six  but  two  more.  The 
most  approved  arrangement  is  that  in  which  the  first  line  is  made  to 
rhyme  with  the  fourth,  the  fifth,  and  the  eighth, — the  second  rhyming 
with  the  third,  the  sixth,  and  the  seventh."  With  respect  to  the  last  six 
lines,  Hallam  observes : — "  By  far  the  worst  arrangement  and  also  the 
least  common  in  Italy  is  that  we  usually  adopt,  the  fifth  and  sixth  rhym- 
ing together,  frequently  after  a  full  pause ;  so  that  the  sonnet  ends  with 
the  point  of  an  epigram.  The  best  form,  as  the  Italians  hold,  is  the 
rhyming  together  of  the  three  uneven  and  the  three  even  lines  ;  but,  as 
our  language  is  less   rich  in  consonant  terminations,  there  can  be  no 

§482.  What  is  said  of  the  sonnet?  From  whom  was  it  borrowed?  What 
renders  it  diflacult  of  construction  ?  To  what  is  the  artificial  character  of  the 
sonnet  to  be  attributed  ?  What  is  said  of  the  rules  of  the  sonnet  ?  Of  how  many 
lines  is  it  composed  ?  In  these  fourteen  lines,  how  many  rhymes  are  there  ?  As 
regards  the  rhyming  of  the  first  eight  lines,  what  is  the  most  approved  arrange- 
ment ?  With  respect  to  the  last  six  lines,  what  d5es  Hallam  pronounce  the  worst 

18 


410  THE   HEEOIO   LINE. 

objection  to  what  has  abundant  precedents  even  in  theirs,  the  rhyming  of 
the  first  and  fourth,  second  and  fifth,  third  and  sixth  lines."  The  follow- 
ing is  an  example  of  the  best  arrangement : — 

AUTUMN. 

"  The  blithe  birds  of  the  summer-tide  are  flown ; 

Cold,  motionless,  and  mute,  stands  all  the  wood. 

Save  as  the  restless  wind,  in  mournful  mood. 
Strays  through  the  tossing  limbs  with  saddest  moan. 
The  leaves  it  wooed  with  kisses,  overblown 

By  gusts,  capricious,  pitiless,  and  rude, 

Lie  dank  and  dead  amid  the  solitude  ; 
Where-through  it  wailcth  desolate  and  lona 
But  with  a  clearer  splendor  sunlight  streams 

Athwart  the  bare,  slim,  branches  ;  and  on  high 
Each  star,  in  Night's  rich  coronal  that  beams. 

Pours  down  iutenser  brilliance  on  the  eye ; 
Till  dazzled  Fancy  finds  her  gorgeous  dreams 

Outshone  in  beauty  by  the  autumn  sky  I "— Pikb. 

§  483.  Iambic  tetrameter  is  a  favorite  measure,  and  maj- 
be  used  with  advantage,  not  only  in  small  fugitive  pieces, 
but  also,  without  any  division  into  stanzas,  throughout  a  long 
poem.  It  is  thus  employed  by  Byron  in  his  3Iazeppa,  and 
Scott  in  his  Lady  of  the  Lake  and  Marmion,  It  is  the 
easiest  of  all  measures  to  write  in ;  and  this  very  facility  is 
apt  to  betray  a  poet,  unless  he  is  on  his  guard,  into  com- 
monplace expressions,  and  a  careless  habit  which  is  fatal  to 
the  effect  of  his  verses. 

§  484.  Iambic  pentameter  constitutes  what  is  called  the 
Heroic  Line.  It  is  the  most  dignified  of  measures,  and  is 
peculiarly  adapted  to  grave,  solemn,  or  sublime,  subjects. 
Heroic  lines  arc  frequently  combined  in  the  quatrain,  or 
stanza  of  four  lines  rhyming  alternately ;  as  m  the  specimen 
from  Gray's  "Elegy  in  a  Country  Church-yard",  quoted  in 
§  481.  They  are  also,  as  we  have  seen,  used  in  the  Spcnsc^ 
rian  stanza.     But  they  appear  most  commonly  in  the  fonn  of 

arrangement  ?  Wiiat,  the  best  ?  Wliat  other  arrangement  docs  he  say  has  pre- 
cedents in  the  Italian  language,  and  is  not  objectionable  ?  Repeat  a  sonnet  coii- 
Btnictcd  according  to  the  Vest  arrangement. 

§  483.  What  is  said  of  iambic  tetrameter?  In  what  long  poems  has  it  been 
employed  ?    Why  is  it  apt  to  betray  a  poet  into  a  careless  habit  of  exprcsfllon  ? 

§  48-1.  What  name  is  given  to  iambic  pentameter  ?  What  is  the  character  of 
this  measure  ?    In  what  stanza  docs  it  frcciuontly  appear  ?   What  is  its  common- 


THE   ALEXANDRINE.  411 

the  couplet,  and  in  poems  which  have  no  division  into 
stanzas  but  are  written  continuously.  They  are  thus  em- 
ployed by  Pope  in  his  "  Essay  on  Criticism  ",  his  "  Essay  on 
Man  ",  and  his  translations  of  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey. 

The  pentameter  couplet  should  have  complete  sense  within  itself,  and  is 
most  effective  when  enlivened  with  an  epigrammatic  turn.  "  It  is  formed," 
says  Webb,  in  his  "  Beauties  of  Poetry  ",  "  to  run  into  points :  but  above 
all  it  delights  in  the  antithesis ;  and  the  art  of  the  versifier  is  complete 
when  the  discordance  in  the  ideas  is  proportioned  to  the  accordance  in  the 
sounds.  To  jar  and  jingle  in  the  same  breath  is  a  masterpiece  of  Gothic 
refinement."  The  epigrammatic  tendency  alluded  to  is  illustrated  in  the 
opening  lines  of  the  "  Essay  on  Criticism  ",  which  constitute  a  fair  speci- 
men of  Pope's  delicate  skill  in  the  management  of  this  his  favorite 

metre : — 

-  "  'Tis  hard  to  say  if  greater  want  of  skill 
Appear  in  writing,  or  in  judging,  ill ; 
But  of  the  two,  less  dangerous  is  the  offence 
To  tire  our  patience,  than  mislead  our  sense. 
Some  few  in  that,  but  numbers  err  in  this ; 
Ten  censure  wrong  for  one  who  writes  amiss : 
A  fool  might  once  himself  alone  expose ; 
Now  one  in  verse  makes  many  more  in  prose." 

§  485.  The  line  of  six  iambi  is  called  the  Alexandrine, 

from  a  poem  on  Alexander  the  Great,  in  which  it  is  said  to 

have  been  first  employed.     It  is  a  majestic  line  occasionally 

used  as  the  third  of  a  triplet,  and  at  the  close  of  Spenserian 

and  other  stanzas,  for  the  purpose  of  imparting  additional 

weight  or  solemnity.     Thus,  from  Dryden's  -^neid  : — 

"  Their  fuiy  falls ;  he  skims  the  liquid  plains. 
High  on  his  chariot,  and  with  loosened  reins, 
Majestic  moves  along,  and  awful  peace  maintains." 

The  Alexandrine  is  peculiarly  effective  when  the  poet  desires  to  ex- 
press by  the  sound  of  his  verse  a  slow  or  difficult  motion.  When  the 
line  is  so  constructed  as  to  admit  of  a  pause  in  the  middle,  or  at  the 
close  of  the  first  hemistich,  it  is  by  no  means  inharmonious,  yet  it  is  too 

est  form  ?  Who  has  thus  employed  it  ?  What  is  said  of  the  sense  of  the  couplet  ? 
To  be  most  effective,  with  what  should  it  be  enlivened  ?  What  does  Webb  say 
respecting  it  ?  Quote  a  passage  from  Pope  illustrating  this  epigrammatic  turn, 
§  485.  Of  what  is  the  Alexandrine  composed  ?  Whence  is  its  name  derived  ? 
Where  is  it  used,  and  for  what  purpose  ?  Scan  the  lines  quoted  from  Dryden  in 
illustration.  In  what  case  is  tbe  Alexandrine  peculiarly  effective  ?  Where  should 
it  admit  of  a  pause  ?    How  should  it  be  used  ? 


412  ,  BLANK   VERSE. 

cumbrous  to  be  carried  through  an  entire  piece.  It  should  be  used 
sparingly ;  and  that  only  in  a  livelier  metre,  for  the  sake  of  an  occasional 
contrast. 

§  486.  Heroic  lines, — that  is,  iambic  pentameters, — 
when  constructed  without  rhyme,  constitute  what  is  called 
Blank  Verse.  This  is  the  most  elevated  of  all  measures,  and 
is  the  only  form  in  which  epic  poetry  should  appear.  At  the 
same  time,  to  succeed  in  it  is  more  difficult  than  in  any  other 
kind  of  verse.  The  reason  is  evident ;  the  effect,  having  no 
assistance,  as  in  most  cases,  from  rhyme,  is  produced  en- 
tirely by  a  musical  disposition  of  the  feet,  frequent  inver- 
sions, and  the  constant  introduction  of  those  other  peculiari- 
ties which  have  been  already  enumerated  as  constituting  the 
distinction  between  the  outward  form  of  prose  and  that  of 
poetry.  A  correct  ear,  a  delicate  taste,  and  true  poetical 
genius,  are  essential  to  success  in  blank  verse. 

Milton  has  made  a  more  effective  use  of  blank  verse  than  any  other 
poet  in  our  literature.  It  has  been  employed  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
tragedy,  to  which,  as  Addison  says,  "  it  seems  wonderfully  adapted  "  ; 
but  even  Shakspeare  himself  has  not  attained  the  harmony  and  effect 
which  characterize  the  author  of  "Paradise  Lost".  Notwithstanding 
Milton's  success,  the  older  critics  seem,  in  general,  to  have  looked  on 
blank  verse  with  disfavor.  Dr.  Johnson,  in  his  Ufe  of  the  poet  just  men- 
tioned, pronounces  against  it  in  the  following  terms : — "  Poetry  may  sub- 
sist without  rhyme ;  but  English  poetry  will  not  often  please,  nor  can 
rhyme  ever  be  safely  spared,  but  where  the  subject  is  able  to  support 
itself.  Of  the  Italian  writers  without  rhyme  whom  Milton  alleges  as  pre- 
cedents, not  one  is  popular ;  what  reason  could  urge  in  its  defence  has 
been  confuted  by  the  ear.  *  *  Like  other  heroes,  Milton  is  to  be  ad- 
mired rather  than  imitated.  He  that  thinks  himself  capable  of  astonish- 
ing, may  write  blank  verse ;  but  those  that  hope  only  to  please,  must 
condescend  to  rhyme." 

Yet,  in  spite  of  this  verdict  from  a  master-critic,  it  is  evident  that 

§  486.  What  ia  meant  by  blank  veree  ?  What  Is  its  character  ?  What  renders 
It  difficult  to  succeed  In  blank  verse  ?  What  arc  essential  to  succesB  In  this  meas- 
ure ?  In  whose  hands  lias  the  most  effective  use  been  made  of  It  ?  To  what  de- 
partment of  literature  does  Addison  declare  blank  verse  adapted  ?  Notwith- 
standing this,  how  docs  Shakspeare  himself  compare  with  Milton  ?  How  did  the 
older  critics  regard  blank  verse  ?  What  docs  Johnson  say  about  it  ?  W^ith  \Vhat 
aclvanf  Jigi'9  is  blank  verse  attended  ?    What  docs  Dryden  pay  rcppcctin.'j  rhyme  ? 


KIIYISIE.  413 

blank  verso  has  many  advantages.  It  certainly  allows  the  poet  a  far 
freer  scope :  both  from  the  fact  that  the  sense  is  not,  as  in  rhymed  pen- 
tameters, confined  to  the  couplet,  and  also  because  it  does  away  with  the 
necessity  which  rhyme  too  often  imposes  on  the  versifier,  of  putting  in 
superfluous  matter  simply  for  the  purpose  of  filling  out  the  sound. 
"  What  rhyme  adds  to  sweetness,"  says  Dryden,  "  it  takes  away  from 
sense  ;  and  he  who  loses  least  by  it  may  be  called  a  gainer." 

For  a  choice  specimen  of  blank  verse,  the  pupil  is  referred  to  p.  224. 

§  487.  Whatever  may  be  the  effect  of  dispensmg  with 
rhyme  in  the  case  of  iambic  pentameters,  there  can  be  no 
question  as  to  its  inexpediency  in  other  measures.  It  has 
occasionally  been  attempted ;  but  never,  perhaps,  with  suc- 
cess, except  in  the  case  of  Southey's  "  Thalaba  ",  for  which, 
despite  this  drawback,  its  author's  genius  has  procured  an 
honorable  place  in  our  literature. 


LESSON    CVII. 

RHYMES. PAUSES. 

§  488.  Rhyme  has  been  already  defined.  As  we  have 
seen,  it  enters  largely  into  English  verse.  The  following 
principles  are  to  be  observed  respecting  it : — 

I.  The  more  numerous  the  letters  that  make  the  rhyme,  the  better  it 
is.  The  French  designate  as  rich  rhymes  those  into  which  a  number  of 
consonants  enter.  Thus,  the  rhyme  of  the  first  couplet  given  below  is 
fuller,  and  therefore  better,  than  that  of  the  second : — 

1.  "  True  wit  is  nature  to  advantage  dressed  ; 

What  oft  was  thought,  but  ne'er  so  well  expressed.''^ 

2.  "  Whoever  thinks  a  faultless  piece  to  see, 

Thinks  what  ne'er  was,  nor  is,  nor  e'er  shall  be."" 

II.  No  syllable  must  rhyme  with  itself.  Hence  there  is  a  fault  in  the 
following  couplet : — 

§  487.  Wliat  is  the  eflfect  of  dispensing  with  rhyme  in  measures  other  than 
iambic  pentameter  ? 

§  488.  What  rhymes  are  considered  the  best  ?  What  name  is  applied  to  such 
by  the  French  ?   Illustrate  this  by  means  of  the  two  given  couplets.   What  is  the 


414  KHYMES. 

"  We  go  from  Ilium's  ruined  walls  away. 
Wherever  favoring  fortune  points  the  ivay.^^ 

III.  Rhyme  speaks  to  the  ear,  and  not  to  the  eye.  If,  therefore,  the 
concluding  sound  is  the  same,  no  matter  what  the  spelling,  the  rhyme  is 
perfect.  This  is  the  case  in  the  following  couplet,  though  the  combin;>. 
tions  of  letters  in  the  rhyming  syllables  are  quite  different : — 

"  The  increasing  prospect  tires  our  wandering  ei/es  ; 
Hills  peep  o'er  hills,  and  Alps  on  Alps  ame." 

Vice  versa,  though  the  concluding  letters  be  the  same,  if  the  sound  is 
different,  the  rhyme  is  imperfect ;  as  in  the  following : — 
"  Encouraged  thus,  wit's  Titans  braved  the  skies  ; 
And  the  press  groaned  with  licensed  blasphemi€.«." 

IV.  In  lines  terminating  with  trochees  or  amphibrachs,  the  last  two 
syllables  must  rhyme  ;  in  such  as  close  with  dactyls,  the  last  three. 

"  In  the  dark  and  green  and  gloomy  valley. 
Satyrs  by  the  brooklet  love  to  dally.'''' 
"  Take  her  up  tenderly. 
Fashioned  so  slenderly.''' 

§  489.  Rh3niies  are  divided  into  two  classes ;  perfect, 
and  admissible.  In  the  former,  as  we  have  seen,  the  clos- 
ing vowel  sounds  are  the  same  (without  reference  to  spell- 
ing), while  the  consonant  sounds  that  precede  them  are 
diflerent;  in  the  latter,  the  closing  vowel  sounds,  though 
not  the  same,  closely  resemble  each  other.  In  either  case, 
if  the  closing  vowel  sounds  are  followed  by  consonant 
sounds,  the  latter  must  correspond,  or  the  rhyme  is  inad- 
missible.    Examples  follow : — 

1.  Perfect. — "  Be  thou  the  first  true  merit  to  befriend ; 

His  praise  is  lost  who  stays  till  all  coram«ui." 

2.  Admissible. — "  Good  nature  and  gopd  sense  must  c\cr join: 

To  err  is  human  ;  to  forgive,  divine.'" 

3.  Inadmiss.— "  Yet  he  was  kind ;  or,  if  severe  in  aught. 

The  love  he  bore  to  learning  was  in/ault." 

§  490.  With  respect  to  the  number  of  lines  that  may 
rhyme  together  in  a  stanza,  there  is  no  definite  rule.    Two  is 

second  principle  with  respect  to  rhymes  ?  To  what  does  rhyme  speak  ?  What  is 
necessary  to  make  a  perfect  rhyme  ?  ^Vhat  is  the  character  of  the  rhyme,  if  the 
sound  is  different  though  the  concluding  letters  be  the  same?  In  what  lines 
must  the  last  two  syllables  rhyme  ?    In  what,  the  last  three  ? 

§  489.  Into  what  two  classes  are  rhymes  divided  ?  When  is  a  rhyme  said  to  be 
perfect  ?    When,  admissible  ?    When  is  a  rhyme  inadmissible  ?    Give  examples. 

§  490.  What  is  said  of  the  number  of  lines  that  may  rhyme  together  ?    'WTiat  Ifl 


PAUSES.  415 

the  most  common ;  though  we  often  have  three,  and  even  four 
in  the  sonnet  and  the  Spenserian  stanza.  Other  things  being 
equal,  the  difficulty  of  constructing  a  stanza  is  proportioned 
to  the  number  of  lines  made  to  close  with  the  same  sound. 

Though  there  is  no  rule  as  to  the  number  of  lines  that  may  rhyma 
together,  it  is  a  general  principle,  that,  throughout  the  same  poem, 
those  which  do  rhyme  should  stand  at  regular  intervals.  This  the  ear 
expects,  and  it  is  disappointed  when  it  finds  the  regularity  disturbed. 
A  capricious  disposition  of  rhymes  may  surprise  the  reader,  but  it  rare- 
ly pleases  him. 

§  491.  Ease  of  utterance  requires  that  every  line  of  ten 
or  more  syllables  should  be  so  constructed,  with  regard  to 
its  sense,  as  to  admit  of  at  least  one  cessation  of  voice,  which 
is  known  as  the  Primary  Pause.  Some  lines  admit  of  sev- 
eral; in  which  case,  the  inferior  or  shorter  ones  are  de- 
nominated Secondary  Pauses.  Whether  primary  or  second- 
ary, these  pauses  must  not  contravene  the  sense ;  and,  there- 
fore, it  is  clear, 

I.  That  they  must  not  divide  a  word. 

n.  Tliat  they  must  not  separate  an  adjective  and  its 
noun,  or  an  adverb  and  its  verb,  when,  in  either  case,  the 
latter  immediately  follows  the  former. 

§  492.  Heroic  lines,  or  iambic  pentameters,  are  most 
melodious  when  the  primary  pause  comes  after  the  fourth 
or  the  fifth  syllable.  Pope,  whose  accurate  ear  rarely  al- 
lowed him  to  err  in  matters  of  euphony,  generally  brings 
the  pause  in  question  in  one  of  these  positions ;  as  in  the 
following  lines : — 


the  commonest  number  ?  How  many  do  we  Bometimea  have  ?  To  what  is  the 
difficulty  of  constructing  a  stanza  proportioned  ?  What  principle  prevails  with 
respect  to  the  regular  occurrence  of  rhymes  ? 

§  491.  What  does  ease  of  utterance  require  ?  What  is  a  primary  pause  ?  What 
is  a  secondary  pause  ?  With  what  must  these  pauses  he  consistent  ?  What  two 
principles,  therefore,  are  established  respecting  them  ? 

§  492.  Where  does  the  primary  pause  occur  in  the  most  harmonious  heroic 
lines  ?  What  poet  generally  brings  his  pauses  in  one  of  these  positions  ?  Show 
how  they  fall  in  the  passage  quoted. 


^16  PAUSES. 

"  Thee,  bold  Longinus  1 1  all  the  Nine  inspire, 
And  bless  their  critic  i  with  a  poet's  fire : 
An  ardent  judge,  i  who,  zealous  to  his  trust, 
With  warmth  gives  sentence,  |  yet  is  always  just ; 
Whose  own  example  |  strengthens  all  his  laws, 
And  is  himself  i  that  great  sublime  he  draws." 

§  493.  The  Aexandrine,  or  iambic  hexameter,  require^: 
its  primary  pause,  after  the  third  foot : — 

*'  The  cruel,  ravenous,  hounds  1  and  bloody  hunters  near, 
This  noblest  beast  of  chase,  1|  that  vainly  doth  but  fear, 
Some  bank  or  quick-set  finds  ;  a  to  which  his  haunch  opposed, 
lie  turns  upon  his  foes,  |  that  soon  have  him  enclosed." 

§  494.  Secondary  pauses  may  occur  in  any  part  of  a  line, 
but  contribute  most  to  its  melody  when  they  stand  at  a  short 
distance  from  the  primary.  Observe  how  they  fall  in  the 
following  passages:  the  secondary  pause  is  denoted  by  a 
single  vertical  line ;  the  primary,  by  parallels. 

"  Two  principles  B  in  human  nature  |  reign ; 
Self-love  I  to  urge,  H  and  reason  |  to  restrain : 
Nor  this  |  a  good,  B  nor  that  a  bad,  |  we  call. 
Each  works  its  end,  |  to  move  |  or  govern  |  all ; 
And  I  to  their  proper  operation  ||  still 
Ascribe  all  good,  1  to  their  improper,  |  ill." 

"  The  dew  was  falling  fast,  B  the  stars  |  began  to  blink  ; 
I  heard  a  voice ;  |  it  said,  H  '  Drink,  |  pretty  creature,  |  drink  1 ' 
And,  I  looking  o'er  the  hedge,  B  before  me  I  espied 
A  snow-white  mountain  lamb,  1  with  a  maiden  at  its  side." 

EXERCISE. 

I.  Each  of  the  following  lines  contains  its  own  words ; 
but  they  are  misplaced,  so  that  there  is  neither  rhyme  nor 
rhythm.  Restore  the  order,  so  as  to  make  the  verses  ana- 
pcstic  tetrameter  acatalectlc,  rhyining  consecutively. 

THE   ALBATROSS. 

Where,  in  magnificence,  tlie  fathomless  waves  toss, 
The  wild  albatross  soars,  high  and  homeless  ; 
Unshrinking,  alone,  undaunted,  unwearied. 
The  tempest  his  throne,  his  empire  the  ocean. 

§  493.  Where  does  the  Alexandrine  require  its  primary  pause  f 
§494.  Where  may  secondary  pauses  occur?    lu  what  position  do  they  con- 
tribute most  to  the  melody  of  a  line  ? 


POETICAL    EXERCISE.  417 

When,  o'er  the  surge,  the  wild  terrible  whirlwind  raves, 
And  the  hurricane  hurls  the  mariner's  dirge  out, 
The  dark-heaving  sea  thou  in  thy  glory  spurnest, 
Proud,  free,  and  homeless,  bird  of  the  ocean-world. 
When  the  winds  are  at  rest  and  in  his  glow  the  sun, 
And  below  the  glittering  tide  in  beauty  sleeps, 
Above,  triumphant,  in  the  pride  of  thy  power. 
Thou,  with  thy  mate,  thy  revels  of  love  art  holding. 
Unconfined,  unfettered,  untired,  unwatched. 
In  the  world  of  the  mind,  like  thee  be  my  spirit ; 
No  leaning  for  earth,  its  flight  e'er  to  weary. 
And  in  regions  of  light  fresh  as  thy  pinions. 

II.  Restore  the  words  in  the  following  lines  to  their 
order,  so  that  they  may  rhyme  as  required  in  the  best  fonn 
of  the  Sonnet: — 

THE   AUTUMN   OP   LIFE. 

Flown  are  the  songs  of  buoyant  youth's  swift  hours  ; 

And  through  his  heart  whose  locks  are  white  and  tuin 

With  rime  of  age,  the  Spirit  of  Delight 
With  a  melancholy  moan  goes  wailing. 
For  all  the  joys,  that,  with  winning  tone,  Hope 

Proclaimed  should  linger,  dear,  bright,  and  deathless, 

Around  the  day  which  to  night  now  waneth. 
Alone,  the  spirit  fruitless  search  maketh. 
Yet  to  the  soul,  aspiring  and  trustful. 

Are  given  visions  exalting  of  its  home  : 
And  its  lofty  goal  grander  glory  clothes. 

Than,  in  cloudless  autumn's  even,  stars  assume. 
In  dole  and  in  darkness  Earth  slowly  sinks, 

While  the  auroral,  pure,  light  of  Heaven  breaks, 

III.  Restore  the  words  in  the  following  lines  to  their 
order,  so  that  they  may  rhyme,  and  form  alternately  trochaic 
tetrameter  ax^atalectic^  and  trochaic  tetrameter  catalectic  : — 

IRON. 

While  stronger  grows  our  faith  in  good, 

Means  of  greater  good  increase ; 
No  longer  slave  of  war,  iron 

The  march  of  peace  onward  leads. 
Still  finding  new  modes  of  service, 

It  moves  air,  earth,  and  ocean ; 
And,  binding  the  distant  nations. 

It  proves  like  the  kindred  tie ; 
Sharing,  with  its  Atlas-shoulder, 

Loads  of  toil  and  human  care  ; 
Bearing,  on  its  wing  of  lightning. 

Through  the  air  swift  thought's  mission. 


418  VARIETIES   OF   rOETEY. 

IV.  Restore  the  words  in  the  following  lines  to  their 
order,  so  that  they  may  form  dactylic  tetrameters  acatalec- 
tic,  and  rhyme  consecutively : — 

For  human  fraternity  one  more  new  claimant, 

Swelling  the  flood  that  on  to  eternity  sweeps. 
I,  who  have  filled  the  cup,  to  think  of  it  tremble, 

For  I  must  drink  of  it  yet,  be  it  what  it  may. 
Into  the  ranks  of  humanity,  room  for  him  ! 

In  your  kingdom  of  vanity,  give  him  a  place  I 
With  kindly  atfection  welcome  the  stranger, 

Not  with  dejection,  hopefully,  trustfully. 


LESSON    CYIII. 

VAKIETIES      or     rOETKY. 

§  495.  The  principal  varieties  of  poetry  are  Epic,  Dra- 
matic, Lyric,  Elegiac,  Pastoral,  Didactic,  and  Satirical.  Each 
of  these  classes  has  its  distinctive  features ;  yet  the  charac- 
teristics of  several  varieties  may  enter  into  the  same  }X)em, 
and  sometimes  do  so  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  difficult  to 
decide  to  which  it  belongs. 

§  496.  Epic  Poetry  is  that  which  treats  of  the  exploits 
of  heroes.  It  generally  embraces  a  variety  of  characters  and 
incidents ;  but  must  be  so  constructed  that  unity  of  design 
may  be  preserved, — that  is,  one  leading  and  complete  action 
should  be  carried  through  the  work,  with  the  distinctness  and 
prominence  of  which  the  less  important  stories,  or  episodes, 
as  tliey  are  called,  should  not  be  allowed  to  interfere.  Epic 
IS  universally  admitted  to  be  the  most  elevated  and  majestic 
department  of  poetiy.     It  is,  at  the  same  time,  the  most  dif- 

§  495.  Enumerate  the  principal  varieties  of  poetry. 

§496.  What  is  epic  poetry  ?  How  docs  itcompare  with  the  other  varieties?  What 
must  be  preserved  throughout  ?  Wlmt  is  meant  by  unity  of  design  ?  ^V^lat  is  said 
of  the  difficulty  of  writing  epics  T  What  are  the  great  masterpieces  of  antiquity  in 
this  department  of  poetry  ?  Of  modem  literatures,  which  has  produced  the  greatest 


V^HIETIES   OF   POETKY.  419 

ficult,  and  that  in  which  mediocrity  is  least  endurable ;  hence, 
few  have  attempted  it,  and  a  still  smaller  nmnber  have  at- 
tained success.  There  are  few  literatures  that  can  boast  of 
more  than  one  great  epic.  Homer's  Iliad  and  Virgil's  ^neid 
are  the  masterpieces  of  antiquity  in  this  department  of  poetry. 
In  modem  times,  English  literature  has  produced,  in  Milton's 
Paradise  Lost,  incomparably  the  greatest  epic ;  in  Italian, 
Tasso's  Jerusalem  Delivered, — in  Spanish,  the  Romance  of 
the  did, — in  Portuguese,  the  Imsiad, — in  German,  the 
Niehelungen-Lied,  —  and,  in  French,  the  Henriade,  —  are 
generally  ranked  by  critics  in  this  class  of  poems. 

An  epic  is  also  technically  termed  an  Epopea,  or  Epopoeia. 
The  word  epic  is  derived  from  the  Greek  £7rof ,  an  heroic  poem  ;  and 
the  species  of  poetry  so  called  claims  a  very  ancient  origin.  History 
has  generally  furnished  its  themes :  but  a  strict  regard  for  historical 
truth  in  the  development  of  the  story  is  by  no  means  requisite.  Fiction, 
invention,  imagination,  may  be  indulged  in  to  an  almost  unlimited  ex- 
tent, provided  the  unity  be  preserved.  According  to  Aristotle,  the  plot 
of  an  epic  must  be  important  in  itself  and  instructive  in  the  reflections 
It  suggests  ;  must  be  filled  with  suitable  incidents,  as  well  as  enlivened 
with  a  variety  of  characters  and  descriptions ;  and  must  maintain 
throughout  propriety  of  character  and  elevation  of  style.  Besides  these 
essentials,  there  are  generally  episodes,  formal  addresses,  sustained 
pomp,  and  machinery.  This  last  term,  as  used  by  critics,  signifies  the 
introduction  of  supernatural  beings ;  without  which  the  French  main- 
tain that  no  poem  can  be  admitted  as  an  epic. 

§  497.  Dramatic  Poetry  is  closely  allied  to  epic.  Like 
the  latter,  it  generally  relates  to  some  important  event,  and 
for  the  most  part  appears  in  the  form  of  blank,  or  heroic, 
verse.  The  term  drama  [derived  from  the  Greek  verb  6pa(^^ 
I  do  or  aci\  is  applied  to  compositions,  whether  prose  or 


epic?  Enumerate  the  epics  of  different  literatures.  What  othername  is  sometimes 
fjiven  to  an  epic  poem  ?  From  what  is  the  word  epic  derived  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  origin  of  epic  poetry  ?  Whence  are  its  themes',  for  the  most  part,  taken  ?  In 
carrying  out  an  historical  event,  what  may  be  indulged  in  ?  According  to  Aris- 
totle, what  are  the  essentials  of  an  epic  ?  Besides  these  essentials,  what  are  gen- 
erally found  in  a  poem  of  this  class  ? 

§  497.  To  what  is  dramatic  poetry  closely  allied  ?   To  what  does  it  generally  re- 
tote  ?    In  what  form  does  it,  for  the  most  part,  appear  ?    From  what  is  the  word 


420  VAKIETIES   OF   POETEY. 

poetry,  in  which  the  events  that  form  their  subjects  arc  not 
related  by  the  author,  but  are  represented  as  actually  taking 
place  by  means  of  dialogue  between  the  various  characters, 
who  speak  the  poet's  language  as  if  it  were  their  own.  The 
principles  here  laid  down  respecting  poetical  dramas  are 
equally  applicable  to  compositions  of  the  same  class  in  prose. 

In  dramatic,  as  in  epic,  poetry,  strict  regard  must  be  had  to  unity. 
The  Dramatic  Unities  are  three : — 1.  Unity  of  action  ;  which  requires 
that  but  one  leading  train  of  events  be  kept  in  view,  and  forbids  the  in- 
troduction of  all  underplots  except  such  as  are  closely  connected  with 
the  principal  action  and  are  calculated  to  develop  it.  2.  Unity  of  iime^ 
which  limits  the  action  to  a  short  period,  generally  a  single  day.  3. 
Unity  ofplace^  which  confines  the  action  to  narrow  geographical  bounds. 
In  addition  to  this,  regard  should  be  had  to  what  is  termed  poetical  jus- 
tice ;  that  is,  the  plot  should  be  so  constructed  that  the  different  charac- 
ters, whether  good  or  bad,  may,  at  the  termination  of  the  piece,  obtain 
their  respective  deserts. 

The  great  dramatists  of  antiquity  are  iEschylus,  Sophocles,  and 
Euripides, — all  ornaments  of  Grecian  literature.  Of  these,  ^schylus 
is  the  most  sublime ;  Sophocles,  the  most  beautiful ;  Euripides,  the 
most  pathetic.  The  first  displays  the  lofty  intellect ;  the  second  ex- 
ercises the  cultivated  taste ;  the  third  indulges  the  feeling  heart. 
Among  moderns,  the  first  place  belongs  to  Shakspearc.  In  French 
literature,  Racine,  Molicire,  and  Comeille,  are  the  leading  dramatists  ;  in 
German,  Schiller  and  Kotzebue  ;  in  Spanish,  Lope  de  Vega  and  Calderon. 

The  leading  divisions  of  dramatic  poetry  are  two ;  Tragedy  and 
Comedy.  The  former  embraces  those  compositions  which  represent 
some  great  or  sublime  action,  attended  with  a  fatal  catastrophe  and 
calculated  to  awaken  in  the  reader  or  spectator  strong  emotions  of  pity 
or  horror.  Its  diction  is  elevated  ;  and  it  is  generally  written  in  blank, 
or  heroic,  verse.  Comedy,  on  the  other  hand,  is  that  species  of  drama 
in  which  the  incidents  and  language  resemble  those  of  ordinary  life  and 
the  plot  has  a  happy  termination. 


drama  derived  ?  To  wbat  compositions  is  the  term  applied  ?  What  must  bo 
strictly  regarded  in  dramatic  poetry?  How  many  dramatic  unities  are  there? 
Define  them.  Who  are  the  great  dramatists  of  antiquity  ?  Mention  the  charac- 
teristics of  each.  Among  moderns,  to  whom  does  the  first  place  belong?  Who 
ore  the  leading  dramatists  of  French  literature  ?  of  German  ?  of  Spanish  ?  What 
are  the  leading  divisions  of  dramatic  poetry  ?  What  compositions  arc  embraced 
under  the  head  of  tragedy  ?  What  is  said  of  the  diction  of  tragedy  ?  In  what  is 
it  generally  written  ?    Define  comedy.    \W\a.i  arc  acts  aw^  scenes  f  To  how  many 


VAEIETIES  OF  POETKY.  421 

The  great  dUisions  of  dramas  are  called  Acts,  and  these  arc  sub-^ 
divided  into  Scenes.  Regular  tragedies  and  comedies  are  limited  to 
five  acts.  The  division  must  in  a  great  measure  be  arbitrary,  though 
rules  have  been  laid  down  by  various  writers  to  define  the  portion  of 
the  plot  which  should  be  contained  in  each.  According  to  Vossius,  tho 
first  act  must  present  the  intrigue ;  the  second  must  develop  it ;  the 
third  should  be  filled  with  incidents  forming  its  complication ;  and  the 
fourth  should  prepare  the  means  of  unravelling  it,  which  is  finally  ac- 
complished in  the  fifth. 

A  Farce  is  a  short  piece  of  low  comic  character.  Its  object  being 
simply  to  excite  mirth,  there  is  nothing  too  unnatural  or  improbable 
for  it  to  contain.  The  farce  is  restricted  to  three  acts  as  its  greatest 
limit,  but  is  often  confined  to  two,  and  sometimes  even  to  one.  In 
England,  it  seems  to  have  risen  to  the  dignity  of  a  regular  theatrical 
entertainment,  about  the  beginning  of  the  last  century ;  since  which 
time,  it  has  maintained  a  high  degree  of  popularity,  being  usually  per- 
formed, by  way  of  contrast,  after  a  tragedy. 

A  Burlesque  is  a  dramatic  composition,  the  humor  of  which  consists 
in  mixing  things  nigh  and  low, — clothing  elevated  thoughts  in  low  ex- 
pressions, or  investing  ordinary  topics  with  the  artificial  dignity  of 
poetic  diction.  A  Parody,  or  Travestie,  is  a  species  of  Burlesque  in 
which  the  form  and  expressions  of  serious  dramas  are  closely  imitated 
in  language  of  a  ridiculous  character. 

A  Melodrama  is  a  short  dramatic  composition  into  which  music  is 
introduced.  Its  plot  is  generally  of  an  insignificant  character,  the  dis- 
play of  gorgeous  scenery  being  its  chief  object. 

A  Burletta  is  a  short  comic  musical  drama. 

A  Prologue  is  a  short  composition  in  verse,  used  to  introduce  a 
drama  and  intended  to  be  recited  before  its  representation. 

An  Epilogue  is  a  closing  address  to  the  audience  at  the  conclusion 
of  a  drama.  It  sometimes  recapitulates  the  chief  incidents  of  the  piece, 
and  draws  a  moral  from  them. 

§  498.  Lyric  Poetry  is  that  variety  which  is  adapted  to 
singing  and  an  accompaniment  of  the  lyre  or  other  musical 
instrmnent. 

Of  lyric  compositions,  the  Ode  is  the  most  elevated.     It 

acts  are  regular  tragedies  and  comedies  confined  ?  What  is  said  of  the  division 
into  acts  ?  What  rule  does  Vossius  lay  down  ?  What  is  a  farce  ?  Of  how  many- 
acts  does  it  consist?  At  what  time,  in  England,  did  it  rise  to  the  dignity  of  a 
regular  theatrical  entertainment?  What  is  a  burlesque?  What  is  a  parody  or 
travestie?  What  is  a  melodrama?  What  is  a  hurletta?  What  is  a  prologue? 
What  is  an  epilogue  ? 

§  498.  What  is  meant  by  lyric  poetry  ?  What  is  the  most  elevated  of  lyric  com- 


422  VARIETIES   OF   POETEY. 

is  characterized  by  length  and  variety,  and  is  for  the  most 
part  confined  to  the  expression  of  sentiment  or  imaginative 
thought,  admitting  of  narrative  only  incidentally.  In  ancient 
literatm-e,  it  was  sometimes  distinguished  by  a  high  degree  of 
sublimity,  as  in  the  case  of  the  odes  of  Pindar.  Previously  to 
the  discoveries  which  have  been  recently  made  by  scholars  in 
the  science  of  Greek  metres,  the  Pindaric  ode  was  supposed 
to  admit  of  the  most  capricious  irregularity  in  the  length  and 
measure  of  its  lines ;  and  hence  our  modem  compositions 
which  were  imitated  from  those  ancient  models  were  con- 
structed on  a  system  of  absolute  license  in  this  respect.  In 
point  of  fact,  however,  a  scheme  of  perfect  metrical  regularity 
pervades  the  Greek  ode  of  both  Pindar  and  the  dramatic 
choruses.  In  English  literature,  Collins's  "  Ode  on  the  Pas- 
sions ",  and  Drydcn's  on  "  St.  Cecilia's  Day  ",  are  among  the 
finest  specimens  of  this  variety  of  composition. 

A  Song  differs  from  an  ode  in  being  shorter,  having  greater  uniform- 
ity of  metre,  and  treating  rather  of  tender  and  melancholy,  than  of 
sublime,  subjects. 

A  Ballad  is  a  popular  species  of  lyric  poem  which  records  in  easy 
and  uniform  verse  some  interesting  incident  or  romantic  adventure. 
Our  most  approved  ballad-measure  is  iambic  heptameter,  often  written, 
however,  in  two  lines,  tetrameter  and  trimeter  alternately. 

Odes  sung  in  honor  of  the  gods  were  anciently  called  Hymns ;  and 
this  term  has  been  applied,  in  modern  times,  to  the  spiritual  songs  used 
in  church-worship.  The  term  Psalm,  originally  applied  to  the  lyric  com- 
positions of  King  David  and  others  of  the  Hebrew  poets,  is  now  used 
as  synonymous  with  hymn. 

The  Madrigal  generally  consists  of  less  than  twelve  lines,  and  is  often 
constructed  without  strict  reference  to  rule,  according  to  the  fancy  of 
the  poet,  rhymes  and  verses  of  different  species  being  frequently  inter- 
mingled. The  subjects  arc  generally  of  a  tender  or  amorous  character ; 
and  the  expressions  used  in  it  are  simple  and  often  quaint. 

positions?  DescrJbo  the  ode.  By  what,  In  ancient  literature,  was  It  character- 
ized ?  IIow  is  the  Irrejjtilarity  of  metre  in  our  modern  odes  accounted  fbr  ?  \Miat 
odes  are  mentioned  as  among  the  finest  specimens  in  our  lanpruafrc  ?  In  what  re- 
spects does  a  soHa:  differ  from  an  ode  ?  What  is  a  ballad  ?  ^Vhat  Is  onr  most  ap- 
proved ballad-measure  ?  What  was  formerly  meant  by  the  term  hymn  t  To  what 
Is  this  term  now  applied  ?  What  was  the  original  meaning  of  the  term  Psalm  f 
With  what  is  it  now  synonymous?  What  is  a  madnpral?  What  is  said  of  the 
ijubjccts  of  madrigals  ? 


VARIETIES   OF   POETEY.  423 

The  Epigram  closely  resembles  thc-madrigal  in  form,  though  it  is 
written  without  reference  to  musical  adaptation.  It  consists  of  a  few 
lines  embodying  a  lively  or  ingenious  thought  qoncisely  expressed.  Its 
point  often  consists  in  a  verbal  pun  ;  but  the  higher  species  of  epigram 
is  rather  characterized  by  fineness  and  delicacy. 

§  499.  Elegiac  Poetry  is  that  variety  which  treats  of 
mournful  subjects.  Gray's  "Elegy  in  a  Country  Church- 
yard" is  the  most  noted  poem  of  this  description  in  the 
whole  range  of  our  literature.  A  short  elegy,  commemora- 
tive of  the  dead  and  expressive  of  the  sorrow  of  surviving 
friends,  is  called  an  Epitaph. 

§  500.  Pastoral  Poetry  depicts  shepherd-life  by  means  of 
narratives,  songs,  and  dialogues.  An  Idyl  is  a  short  descrip- 
tive pastoral  poem.  An  Eclogue  is  a  pastoral  in  which 
shepherds  are  represented  as  conversing.  The  art  of  the  pas- 
toral poet  lies  in  selecting  for  his  descriptions  the  beauties 
of  rural  life,  and  carefully  avoiding  all  its  repulsive  features. 
§  501.  Didactic  Poetry  aims  to  instruct  rather  than  to 
please.  Generally  devoted  to  the  exposition  of  some  dry 
abstract  subject,  it  fails  to  interest  the  reader  unless  re- 
plete with  ornament.  Of  this  species  of  poetry,  Pollok's 
"  Course  of  Time  ",  Young's  "  Night  Thoughts  ",  and  Pope's 
"  Essay  on  Man  ",  will  serve  as  specimens. 

§  502.  Satirical  Poetry  is  that  in  which  the  weaknesses, 
follies,  or  wickedness,  of  men,  are  held  up  to  ridicule,  or  re- 
buked with  serious  severity. 

A  Satire  is  general  in  its  character,  and  is  aimed  at  the  weakness,  folly 
or  wickedness,  rather  than  the  individual.  Its  object  is  the  reformation 
of  the  abuses  it  attacks.  A  Lampoon,  or  Pasquinade,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  personally  offensive,  assailing  the  individual  rather  than  his  fault.  It 
employs  abuse  in  preference  to  argument,  and  aims  rather  to  annoy  or 
injure  than  to  reform. 

§  499.  What  is  elegiac  poetry  ?  What  is  the  most  noted  poem  of  this  descrip- 
tion in  our  literature  ?    What  is  an  epitaph  ? 

§500.  What  does  pastoral  poetry  depict?  What  is  an  idyl?  What  is  an 
eclogue  ?    In  what  does  the  art  of  the  pastoral  poet  consist  ? 

§  501.  What  is  the  aim  of  didactic  poetry  ?  Why  should  it  be  replete  with 
ornament  ?    What  works  are  mentioned  as  specimens  of  didactic  poems  ? 

§  502.  What  is  satirical  poetry  ?    What  is  a  satire  ?    What  is  a  lampoon  ? 


SPECIMEN   PROOF-SHEET, 


EZBIBITINO   THE    MAEKS    USED  IN  THE   CORRECTION  OF  ERRORS. 


WILLIAM    FALCONER.  H£)a|ti. 

a.  ^a[vi^      William  Falconer  was  the  son  of  a  ^  barber  in     ^ 
^a/  Edinburgh,  ^nd  was  bom  in  1730.    lie  had  vary  few  ^ 

^  d/      avantages  of  education,  and  (went  to  sea  (in  early  lifc)     U."^ 

in  the  merchant  service.    He  afterwards  became  mate 
u>ct&/    of  a  vessel  that  wrecked  in  the  Levant  and  was  savTjd  cJloE.^    ,/  ® 
f  c^       vf'^t^  only  tvro  of  his  crew :  ^his  catastrophc"formed  ST/  ^       \^^ 
the  subject  of  his  poem  entitled  "  The  Shipwreck,  on  cy  ^^ 

X  which  his  reputation  as  a  writer  chiefly  rests.    Early 
^^  luf.       in  1769,  his  " Marine  Dictionary  "  appear]cd,  which ^room.     3  ** 
^    hasbeen  highly  spoken  of  by  those  capable  of  csti-       m:  "^ 
mating  its  merits.     I  cN&  GicaL'^ 

*  *cu>te/       (in  this-seaffl-year,  he  embarked  on  the  Aurora  but  C.  c.        ;/  * 

the  vessel  was  never  heard  of  after  she  passed  the" 
*  :/        Cape ;  the  poet    of  the  Shipwreck  is  therefore  sup-  oY^f^  \>eiit\ ' 

^e/     posed  to  have  perished  by  the  same  disaster  he  had 
27  Cfl^      himaotf  so  graphically  described.     1  The  subject  of   «r  ^ 

th®  "Shipwreck"  and  its  authors  fate  demand  our  \^^^ 

in*^rest  and  sympathy.    If  we  pay  respect  to  the       / — /^ 
ingeniious  scholar  who  can  produce  agreeable  verses      1/  * 
in  leisure  and  retirement,  how  much  more  interest     c^  ^taX  ** 
must  we  take  iu  the  "  shipboy  on  the  high  and  giddy   /-/  ^ 

*3  A  1     I 


"vy 


mast',    cherishing  the  hour  which  he  may  casually 

A  , ^ 

snatch  from 


langer  and  fatigue.  J/' 

eimco  U1M01V&  ol  [cutcii'  al/ 


SPECIMEN   PKOOF-SHEET, 

AS   CORRSCTED. 


WILLIAM  FALCONER. 

"William  Falconek  was  tlie  son  of  a  barber  in 
Edinburgh,  and  was  born  in  1730.  He  bad  very  few 
advantages  of  education,  and  in  early  life  went  to  sea 
in  the  merchant  service.  lie  afterwards  became  mate 
of  a  vessel  that  was  wrecked  in  the  Levant^  and  was 
saved  with  only  two  of  his  crew.  This  catastrophe 
formed  the  subject  of  his  poem  entitled  "The  Ship- 
wreck ",  on  which  his  reputation  as  a  writer  chiefly 
rests.  Early  in  1769,  his  "Marine  Dictionary  "  ap- 
peared, which  has  been  highly  spoken  of  by  those 
capable  of  estimating  its  merits.  In  this  same  year, 
he  embarked  on  the  Aurora ;  but  the  vessel  was  never 
heard  of  after  she  passed  the  Cape :  the  poet  of  the 
Shipwreck  is  therefore  supposed  to  have  perished  by 
the  same  disaster  he  had  himself  so  graphically  de- 
scribed. 

The  subject  of  the  "  Shipwreck  "  and  its  author's 
fate  demand  our  interest  and  sympathy. — If  we  pay 
respect  to  the  ingenious  scholar  who  can  produce 
agreeable  verses  in  leisure  and  retirement,  how  much 
more  interest  must  we  take  in  the  "  ship-boy  on  the 
high  and  giddy  mast ",  cherishing  refined  visions  of 
fancy  at  the  hour  which  he  may  casually  snatch 
from  danger  and  fatigue! 


EXPLANATION  OF  MARKS  USED  ON  THE  SPECIMEN  PROOF-SHEET. 

If  it  is  desired  to  change  any  word  to  capitals,  small  capitals,  Roman  text 
(tko  ordinary  letter),  or  italics,  draw  a  line  beneath  it,  and  write  in  the  margin, 
Caps.,  S.  caps.,  Horn.,  or  licU.,  as  the  case  may  be.  See  corrections  1,  2, 14,  and 
8,  on  the  specimen  sheet. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  expunge  a  letter  or  word,  draw  a  line  through  it,  and 
place  in  the  margin  a  cliaracter  resembling  a  d  of  current  hand,  which  stands  for 
the  Latin  word  dele  (erase)  ;  as  in  No.  3. 

When  a  wrong  letter  or  word  occurs  in  the  proof-sheet,  draw  a  line  through 
it,  and  place  what  must  be  substituted  for  it  in  the  margin,  with  a  vertical  line  at 
the  right ;  as  in  the  corrections  marked  4. 

Attention  is  drawn  to  an  inverted  letter  by  underscoring  it,  and  writing  oppo- 
site the  character  used  in  No.  5. 

An  omitted  word,  letter,  comma,  semicolon,  colon,  exclamation-point,  or 
interrogation-point,  as  well  as  brackets  and  parentheses,  are  written  in  the  mar- 
gin, with  a  vertical  line  at  the  right;  as  in  the  various  corrections  marked  G:  a 
caret  shows  where  to  introduce  what  is  thus  marked  in.  When  there  is  so  much 
omitted  that  there  is  not  room  for  it  in  the  margin,  it  is  written  at  the  top  or 
bottom  of  the  page,  and  a  line  is  used  to  show  where  it  is  to  be  introduced ;  as  at 
the  bottom  of  the  specimen  sheet. 

A  period  is  marked  in  by  placing  it  in  the  margin  inside  of  a  circle,  as  in  No.  9. 

Apostrophes  and  quotation-points  are  introduced  in  a  character  resembling  a 
V,  and  a  caret  is  placed  in  the  text  to  show  where  they  are  to  be  inserted.  This 
is  illustrated  in  No.  11. 

No.  22  shows  how  the  dash  and  hyphen  are  introduced. 

When  a  letter  or  word  should  be  transposed,  a  line  is  drawn  around  it  and 
carried  to  the  place  where  it  should  stand,  and  the  letters  tr.  are  placed  opposite, 
as  in  No.  7. 

No.  10  shows  how  to  mark  out  a  quadrat  or  space  which  improperly  appears. 

In  a  broken  or  imperfect  letter  is  used,  draw  a  line  through  or  beneath  it,  and 
make  an  inclined  cross  in  the  margin,  as  in  No.  12. 

Sometimes  a  letter  of  the  wrong  size  will  be  used  by  mistake  ;  in  such  a  case, 
underline  it  and  place  the  letters  w.f.  {wrong  font)  in  the  margin,  as  in  13. 

If  the  letters  of  a  word  stand  apart  from  each  other,  draw  a  curved  lino  be- 
neath the  space  which  separates  them,  and  two  curves  in  the  margin,  as  in  15. 
If  the  proper  space  is  wanting  between  two  contiguous  words,  place  a  caret 
where  the  space  should  be,  and  opposite  to  them  make  a  character  like  a  music 
sharp,  as  shown  in  No.  16. 

Two  parallel  horizontal  lines,  as  in  No.  17,  are  used  when  the  letters  of  a 
word  are  not  all  in  the  same  level,  and  a  horizontal  line  is  also  drawn  under  such 
as  are  out  of  place. 

When  a  new  paragraph  has  been  improperly  begun,  a  line  is  drawn  from  Its 
commencement  to  the  end  of  the  previous  paragraph,  and  the  words  tw  break  arc 
written  in  the  margin ;  see  No.  18.  When  it  is  desired  to  commence  a  new  par- 
agraph, the  paragraph  mark  (1)  is  introduced  at  the  place,  and  also  in  the  margin. 

When  letters  at  the  commencement  of  a  line  are  out  of  the  proper  level,  a 
horizontal  lino  should  be  drawn  beneath  them,  and  a  similar  one  placed  in  the 
margin ;  as  in  No.  21.  When  any  portion  of  a  paragraph  projects  laterally  beyond 
the  rest,  a  vertical  line  should  be  drawn  beside  it,  and  a  similar  one  must  stand 
opposite  to  it  in  the  margin ;  see  No.  2^3. 

When  a  lead  has  been  Improperly  omitted,  the  word  Lead  is  written  at  the 
side  of  the  page,  and  a  horizontal  line  shows  where  it  is  to  bo  introduced,  as  iu 
No.  2.').    If  a  lead  too  many  has  been  introduced,  the  error  is  corrected  as  in  *4. 

When  uneven  spaces  are  left  between  words,  a  line  is  drawn  beneath,  and 
sjmce  better  is  written  opposite ;  see  26. 

If  it  is  desired  to  retain  a  word  which  has  been  marked  out,  dots  arc  placed 
"beneath  It,  and  tho  word  stet  {let  it  stand)  is  written  in  the  margin  ;  as  in  27. 


A  LIST  OF  SUBJECTS. 


TuE  student  will  find  it  to  his  advantage  always  to  prepare  a  pre- 
liminary analysis.  To  aid  Mm  in  this,  models  in  the  principal  depart- 
ments of  prose  composition  are  first  presented. 

1.  A  Parallel. — TJie  Old  and  the  New  Testament. 
I.  Their  respective  writers. 

II.  The  parties  to  whom  they  are  each  addressed, 

III.  The  languages  in  which  they  are  respectively  written. 

IV.  Comparison  of  their  style. 

V.  Authenticity  of  each,  by  whom  acknowledged. 
VI.  Tone  of  the  teachings  of  each. 

2.  A  Descriptive  Letter. — Dated  Niagara  Falls. 

I.  Acknowledge  receipt  of  a  friend's  letter,  and  offer  to  give  an  account  of  a 

summer  tour  which  you  are  supposed  to  have  taken. 
II.  Preparations  for  leaving  home. 
m.  Incidents  on  the  way  to  Niagara. 
IV.  General  remarks  on  the  pleasures,  fatigues,  and  advantages,  of  travelling. 

V.  Description  of  the  Falls  and  the  surrounding  places. 

VI.  Comparison  with  any  other  scene. 

VII.  Emotions  awakened  by  sublime  scenery. 

VIII.  General  remarks  about  returning,  and  the  anticipated  pleasure  of  rejoining 
friends. 

3.  Historical  Narrative. —  TJie  Spanish  Armada. 

I.  Introductory  remarks  on  the  great  expeditions  of  which  history  tells  us. 
II.  Causes  that  led  to  the  outfit  of  the  Armada. 

III.  General  description  of  the  Spanish  vessels  of  that  age. 

IV.  Strength  of  the  Armada. 

V.  Consternation  in  Britain,  and  preparations  to  meet  it. 

VI.  Fate  of  the  Armada. 
Vn.  Political  Consequences. 

VIII.  General  reflections.    History  shows  that  divine  interference  often  frus- 
trates the  greatest  human  efforts. 

4.  Biographical  Sketch. — Julius  Coisar. 
I.  State  of  Rome  at  the  time  of  Caesar's  birth. 
II.  Caesar's  birth  and  parentage. 

III.  Incidents  of  his  youth.    Came  near  falling  a  victim  to  Sylla's  cruelty. 

IV.  His  first  military  exploits. 

V.  Means  which  he  took  to  obtain  popularity. 
VI.  Rapid  political  advancement.    Mighty  conquests. 

VII.  His  fate  ;  the  causes  that  led  to  it,  and  its  consequences, 
Vin.  Ca3sar's  character,  as  a  general ;  as  an  author ;  as  a  man. 


428 


LIST  OF   SUBJECTS. 


5.  Essay. — Sldps. 

I.  Origin.    When  and  by  -whom  first  made  ? 
II.  Appearance.    Original  form  and  eubseqacnt  improvements. 
III.  Inventions.    Mariners'  compass ;  application  of  steam. 
rv.  Objects  for  which  they  are  used. 

V.  Usefulness,  as  compared  with  other  means  of  transportation. 
VI.  Effects  that  ships  have  produced  on  mankind. 
Vn.  Feelings  excited  by  seeing  a  ship  under  full  sail. 

.  The  Discovery  of  America. 


PARALLELS. 

0.  The  character  of  Columbus  and  that 
of  Sir  Isaac  Newton. 

7.  The  character  of  St.  John  and  that 

of  St.  Paul. 

8.  Luther  and  Calvin. 

9.  Caesar  and  Alexander. 

10.  Firmness  and  Obstinacy. 

11.  Physical  and  Moral  Courage. 

12.  Ancient  and  Modem  Literature. 

13.  Invention  of  the  Mariners'  Compass 

and  Application  of  Steam  to  Navi- 
gation. 

14.  Ancient  and  Modem  Greece. 

15.  Ancient  and  Modern  Eome. 

16.  A  Concise  and  a  Diffuse  Style. 

17.  Prose  and  Poetry. 

18.  Beauty  and  Sublimity. 

19.  The  Man  of  Talent  and  the  Man  of 

Genius. 

20.  Wit  and  Humor. 

21.  French  and  English  Character. 

22.  Courage  and  Rashness. 

23.  Theory  and  Practice. 

24.  The  Ideal  and  the  Real. 

25.  Ancient  and  Modem  Patriotism. 
20.  The  Sacred  and  the  Profane  Poets. 

HISTORICAL  NARRATIVES. 

27.  The  Deluge. 

28.  The  Crossing  of  the  Red  Sea.    (Ex- 

odus, chap.  XIV.) 

29.  Naaman,  the  Leper.      (II.  Kings, 

chap.  V.) 
?50.  The  History  of  Jonah. 
31.  Jcphthah's     Daughter.       (Judges, 

chap.  XI.,  V.  29.) 
S2.  David  and  Goliath.      (I.    Samuel, 

chap.  XVII.) 
!53.  The  Reign  of  the  Emperor  Nero. 
84.  The  Era  of  Haroun  Al  Raschid. 
35,  The  Norman  Conquest. 
86.  The  Crusades. 
67.  Granting  of  the  Magna  Charta. 


39.  The  Settling  of  America. 

40.  The  Reformation. 

41.  Luther  at  the  Diet  of  Worms. 

42.  The  Thirty  Years'  War. 

43.  The  Reign  of  Queen  Anne. 

44.  The  Era  of  Louis  XIV. 

45.  The  American  Revolution. 

46.  The  Battle  of  Bunker  HUl. 

47.  The  Reign  of  Terror. 

43.  The  Invasion  of  Russia  by  Napo- 
■  Icon. 

49.  The  Hungarian  Revolution. 

50.  The  Russo-Turkish  War. 

BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHES. 

51.  Moses. 

52.  Ruth. 

53.  Solomon. 

54.  Homer. 

55.  Daniel. 

56.  Alexander  the  Great. 

57.  Cicero. 

58.  Mark  Antony. 

59.  Mohammed. 

60.  Charlemagne. 

61.  Richard  Coeur  dc  Lioa. 

62.  Petrarch. 
03.  Tasso. 

64.  Columbus. 

65.  Henry  Vm. 

66.  Erasmus. 

67.  Bloody  Mary. 

68.  Sir  Isaac  Newton. 

69.  Queen  Elizabeth. 

70.  Shakspcare. 

71.  Maria  Theresa. 

72.  Peter  the  Great. 

73.  Voltaire. 

74.  Patrick  Henry. 

75.  Washington. 
70.  Franklin, 

77,  Robespierre, 

78,  Aaron  Burr. 

79,  Howard,  the  philanthropist. 


LIST   OF    SUBJECTS. 


429 


80.  MunffoPark 


FICTION, 

Adventures  in  California. 

An  Encounter  with  Pirates. 

A  Lion  Hunt  in  Southern  Africa. 

The  Indian's  Eevenge. 

The  History  of  a  Pin. 

The  History  of  a  Bible. 

The  History  of  a  Cent. 

The  History  of  a  Shoe. 

The  History  of  a  Looking-glass. 

The  History  of  a  Belle. 

The  History  of  a  School-room. 

The  Story  of  an  Old  Soldier. 

Robinson  Crusoe. 

A  Hurricane  in  the  Torrid  Zone. 

Visit  to  Mount  St.  Bernard. 

The  Victim  of  Intemperance. 

Incidents  of  a  Whaling  Voyage. 

Adventures  in  Australia, 

The  Prisoner  of  the  Bastile. 

The  Smugglers. 

The  Alchemist. 

The  Flower-girl . 

A  Voyage  to  the  Mediterranean. 

Visit  to  an  Almshouse. 

Encounter  with  Robbers. 


87, 

88. 

89. 

90. 

91. 

92. 

93. 

94. 

95. 

96. 

97. 

98. 

99. 
100. 
101. 
102. 
103. 
104. 
105. 

106. 
107. 
lOS. 
109. 
110. 
111. 
112. 

iia 

114. 
115. 
110. 
llf. 
118. 
119. 
120. 
121. 
122. 
123. 
124. 
125. 
126. 
127. 
128. 


ESSAYS. 

Spring. 

A  Thunder-storm* 

Flowers. 

The  Beauties  of  Nature. 

Snow. 

Mountains. 

Forests. 

A  Lake  Scene. 

A  Storm  at  Sea. 

Our  Country. 

Thanksgiving  Day. 

The  Study  of  History. 

The  Advantages  of  Education. 

Peace. 

War. 

An  Earthquake. 

Chivalry. 

Scene  in  an  Auction-room. 

The  Ruins  of  Time. 

The  Fickleness  of  Fortune. 

Disease. 

The  Cholera. 

Prayer. 


129.  Death. 

130.  Life, 

131.  Youth. 

132.  Old  Age. 

133.  Morning. 

134.  Evening. 

135.  Day. 
130.  Night. 

137.  Summer. 

138.  Autumn. 

139.  Winter. 

140.  The  Mission  of  the  Dew-drop. 

141.  Truth. 

142.  Honesty. 

143.  Earth's  Battle-fields. 

144.  Gambling. 

145.  Echo. 

146.  Anger. 

147.  Self-government. 

148.  Ambition. 

149.  Contentment. 

150.  The  Love  of  Fame. 

151.  Palestine  and  its  Associations. 

152.  City  Life, 

153.  The  West  Indies. 

154.  Melancholy. 

155.  Life  in  the  Country. 

156.  Purity  of  Thought. 

157.  Patience. 

158.  The  Life  of  the  Merchant. 

159.  The  Life  of  the  Sailor. 

160.  The  Life  of  the  Soldier. 

161.  The  Mariners'  Compass. 

162.  The  Spirit  of  Discovery. 

163.  Pride. 

164.  The  Art  of  Printing. 

165.  The  Third  Commandment. 

166.  Mirrors. 

167.  Newspapers. 

168.  Jerusalem. 

169.  Novelty. 

170.  The  Bible. 

171.  The  Sun. 

172.  The  Starry  Heavens. 

173.  Astronomy. 

174.  The  Rainbow. 

175.  The  Moon. 

176.  The  Aurora  Borealis. 

177.  The  Stars. 

178.  Comets. 

179.  The  Earth. 

180.  The  Study  of  Geography. 


430 


LIST  OF   SUBJECTS. 


381.  The  Froviuce  of  Rhetoric. 

233.  Perseverance. 

182.  The  Mystic  Seven. 

2M.  Silent  Cities. 

183.  The  Pleasures  of  Travelling. 

235.  Riches  and  Poverty. 

184.  The  Congress  of  the  United  States. 

236.  Eloquence. 

185.  The  Applications  of  Steam. 

237.  The  Miser. 

18«.  Public  Libraries. 

238.  Fireside  Angels. 

187.  Rain, 

239,  Conscience  and  Law. 

188.  The  Fourth  Commandment. 

240.  Taste. 

189.  Rivers. 

ail.  Tyranny. 

190.  To-morrow. 

242.  Smuggling. 

191.  The  Russian  Empire. 

243.  The  Evils  of  Extravagance. 

192.  The  Ocean. 

244.  The  Inquisition. 

193.  True  Politeness. 

245.  Revenge. 

194.  Icebergs. 

246.  The  Attraction  of  Gravitation. 

195.  The  Pearl  Fishery. 

247.  The  Tempter  and  the  Tempted. 

1%.  Early  Piety. 

5^48.  The  Art  of  Writing. 

19T.  The  Arctic  Regions. 

249.  Advantages  of  Studying  the  Cla* 

198.  The  Wrongs  of  the  Indian. 

sics. 

199.  Egyptian  Pyramids. 

250.  Female  Character. 

200.  Government. 

251.  Knowledge  is  Power. 

201.  Manufactures. 

252.  The  Trials  of  the  Teacher. 

902.  Character  of  the  Ancient  Romans, 

253.  The  March  of  Intellect. 

203,  The  Influence  of  Woman. 

254.  The  Revival  of  Learning. 

204,  The  Schoolmaster  Abroad, 

255.  Gratitude, 

205,  The  Pleasures  of  Memory. 

256,  Modesty. 

200.  Humility. 

257.  Benevolence. 

207.  Natural  History. 

258.  Genius. 

208,  Music, 

259.  The  Power  of  Conscience. 

209,  The  Hypocrite, 

260,  The  Orator, 

210.  The  Art  of  Composition. 

2(51,  Aristocracy. 

211,  The  Invisible  World, 

202.  Ancient  Travellers. 

212,  Poctiy, 

263.  Dreams, 

213.  Man's  True  Greatness. 

2&4,  Magic  and  Magicians. 

214.  Virtue. 

265.  Twilight, 

215.  Vice. 

266.  Horace  and  his  Friends. 

210,  The  Sabbath. 

207.  Formality. 

217,  Jealousy. 

268.  The  Rhine. 

218.  The  Fifth  Commandment. 

269.  Legendary  Poetry. 

219.  A  Volcanic  Eruption. 

270.  Clemency. 

220.  Oriental  Countries. 

271,  Parental  AflTectlon. 

221,  Deserts. 

272.  The  Spirit  of  Song. 

222.  Egypt, 

273.  Hope. 

223.  The  Mohammedan  Religion. 

274.  Where  is  thy  Home? 

224,  Paganism. 

275.  Love, 

225.  Industry. 

276,  Forgiveness, 

220.  Idleness. 

277.  Earth's  Bencfectors, 

227.  Flattery. 

278.  Peasant  Life, 

228,  Intemperance, 

279.  The  Power  of  Association. 

22i).  Excelsior. 

280.  Mis.sionary  Enterprise. 

230.  Courage, 

281.  The  Lord's  Prayer. 

231,  Duplicity. 

282.  The  Jews. 

282,  Early  ImprcHsions. 

283.  The  End  not  yet. 

LIST   OF   SUBJECTS. 


431 


884.  The  Feudal  System. 

336.  The  Philosopher's  Stone. 

285.  The  Progress  of  Civilization. 

337.  Poetesses  of  Ancient  Greece. 

286.  The  Dark  Ages. 

338.  The  Insolence  of  Office. 

287.  Monastic  Institutions. 

339.  Authorship. 

288.  Generosity. 

340.  Affectation. 

289.  The  Hermit. 

341.  The  Standard  of  Taste. 

290.  Philanthropy. 

342.  The  Mind. 

291.  The  Good  Part. 

343.  The  Stoic  Philosophy. 

292.  Patriotism. 

344.  The  Drama. 

293.  Freedom. 

345.  The  Bulwarks  of  Despotic  Power. 

294.  The  Fourth  of  July. 

346.  Edenv 

295.  Honor. 

347.  Nature  and  Art. 

296.  A  Republican  Government. 

348.  The  True. 

297.  Old  things  have  passed  away. 

ai9.  The  Good. 

298.  Hero-worship. 

350.  The  Ludicrous. 

299.  The  True  Hero. 

351.  Epicurus  and  his  Followers. 

300.  Happiness. 

352.  Reformation. 

301-.  Sources  of  a  Nation's  Wealth. 

353.  The  Freedom  of  the  Press. 

302.  The  English  Noble. 

354.  The  Present. 

803.  Commerce. 

355.  The  Past. 

804.  The  Art  of  Painting. 

356.  The  Future. 

305.  "Let  there  be  Light." 

357.  Rome  under  Augustus. 

306.  Early  Rising. 

358.  Criticism. 

307.  Candor. 

359.  Silent  Influence. 

308.  Dissipation. 

360.  The  Immortality  of  the  Soul. 

309.  The  Proselyting  Spirit. 

361.  Martyrdom  for  Tnith. 

310.  Envy. 

362.  The  Monuments  of  Antiquity. 

311.  The  Evils  of  Anarchy. 

363.  The  Power  of  Verse  to  Perpetuate. 

312.  College  Life. 

364.  Rome  was  not  built  in  a  Day. 

313.  Cheerfulness. 

365.  The  First  Stroke  is  Half  the  Battle. 

314.  Fashion. 

366.  Make  Hay  while  the  Sun  shines. 

315.  The  Uses  of  Biography. 

367.  Order  is  Needful  for  Improvement, 

316.  Party-spirit. 

368.  Resist  the  Beginnings  of  Evil. 

317.  Atheism. 

369.  Necessity  is  the  Mother  of  Inven- 

318. Polytheism. 

tion. 

319.  Physical  Education. 

370.  A    Soft    Answer    tumeth    away 

320.  The  Opening  of  Japan. 

Wrath. 

321.  Pastoral  Poetry. 

371.  Familiarity  begets  Contempt. 

322.  Election  Day. 

372.  Refinement,  a  National  Benefit. 

323.  The  Pleasures  of  the  Antiquarian. 

373.  A  Rolling  Stone  gathers  no  Moss. 

324.  The  Backwoodsman. 

374.  Only  a  Fool  turns  aside  to  Deceit. 

325.  Punctuality. 

375.  Avoid  Extremes. 

326.  The  Great  West. 

376.  Cast  not  Pearls  before  Swine. 

327.  Cruelty  to  Animals. 

377.  Study  to  mind  your  own  Business. 

328.  Curiosity. 

378.  Hunger  is  the  Best  Sauce. 

329.  Foppery. 

379.  Fools  make  a  Mock  of  Sin. 

330.  Concentration  of  Mind. 

380.  A  Fault  confessed  is  half  redressed. 

331.  Gardening. 

381.  Necessity  has  no  Law. 

3.32.  Christmas  Day. 

382.  The  Face  is  an  Index  of  the  Mind. 

333.  Modem  Delusions. 

383.  Science,  the  Handmaid  of  Religion. 

334.  Young  America. 

384.  Fortune  favors  the  Brave. 

ai5.  The  Multiplication  of  Books. 

385.  Love  thy  Neighbor  as  thyself. 

432 


LIST   OF   SUBJECTS. 


387, 


;390. 
391, 


393. 
SM. 
395. 
396. 
397. 
398. 
399. 
400. 

401. 

402. 

403. 

404. 

405. 

406. 

407. 

408. 

409. 

410. 
411. 

412. 
413. 
414. 
415. 
416. 
417. 
418. 
419. 
420. 
4C5. 
46& 
407. 


Many  Men  of  Many  Minds. 

Opportunity  makes  the  Thief. 

What  can't  be  cured  must  be  en- 
dured. 

Grasp  All,  lose  All. 

New  Brooms  sweep  Clean. 

Where  there's  a  Will  there's  a 
Way. 

The  Race  is  not  to  the  Swift. 

The  Burnt  Child  dreads  the  Fire. 

Good  Wine  needs  no  Bush. 

Time  brings  All  Things  to  Light. 

Look  before  you  leap. 

It  never  rains  but  it  pours. 

Out  of  Debt,  out  of  Danger. 

Wliatever  is,  is  right. 

Political  Parties  at  Athens  in  the 
Time  of  Demosthenes. 

The  Literary  Character  of  Julius 
Caesar. 

Influence  of  Shakspeare's  Plays  on 
Popular  Estimation  of  Historical 
Characters. 

The  Nobility  and  Responsibility  of 
the  Teacher's  Vocation. 

Independence  of  Thought  in  Amer- 
ica. 

Great  Men,  as  Types  and  as  Indi- 
viduals. 

The  Love  of  Money,  the  Root  of 
All  EvU. 

By  Others'  Faults  Wise  Men  cor- 
rect their  own. 

The  Perfection  of  Art  is  to  conceal 
Art. 

A  Bird  in  the  Hand  is  Worth  Two 
in  the  Bush. 

Economy,  the  Philosopher's  Stone. 

Many  a  Slip  'twlxt  the  Cup  and  the 
Lip. 

Treason  does  never  prosper. 

Honesty  is  the  best  Policy. 

Gi-eat  talkers,  little  doers. 

Decision  of  Character. 

National  Prejudice. 

Horrors  of  Civil  War. 

The  Passion  for  Dress. 

Our  Duties  as  Citizens. 

Never  too  old  to  leani.  | 


I  421.  Contrivance  proves  Design. 

422.  The  Necessity  of  Relaxation. 

423.  Example,  Better  than  Precept. 

424.  Popular  Clamor. 

425.  The  Dress  is  not  the  Man. 

426.  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii. 

427.  Contemplation. 

428.  Nature,  the  Source  of  Poetic  In- 

epiration. 

429.  The  Conflict  of  Duties. 

430.  Infirmities  of  Men  of  Genius. 

431.  The  Antediluvians. 

432.  The  Ingratitude  of  Republics. 

433.  Domestic    Life    of    the    Ancient 

Greeks. 

434.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  and  his  Age. 

435.  Political  Economy. 

436.  The  Fate  of  Reformers. 

437.  Idolatry. 

438.  Evidences  of  Revealed  Religion. 

439.  The  Pleasures  of  Imagination. 

440.  Comparison  of  Classical  with  Mod- 

em Literature. 

441.  The  Decline  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

442.  Literary  Empiricism. 

443.  The  Examples  of  Great  Men. 

444.  Bacon  and  Aristotle. 

445.  Speculation  in  Philosophy. 

446.  Fanaticism. 

447.  Progress  versus  Conservatism. 

448.  Radicalism. 

449.  Intellectual  Excitements. 

450.  Mesmerism. 

451.  Psychology. 
453.  Spiritualism. 

453.  The  Force  of  Prejudice. 

454.  The  Moral  Sublime. 

455.  The  Moral  Beautlftil. 

456.  Permanence  of  Literary  Fame. 

457.  Roman  Eloquence. 

458.  Grecian  Mythology. 

459.  The  Scholar's  Hope. 
400.  American  Literature. 

461.  The  Tendency  of  American  Insti- 

tutions. 

462.  The  Revolutionary  Spirit. 

463.  Romance  of  the  American  Revolu- 

tion. 
404.  Magazine  Literature. 


The  Satisfaction  resulting  from  a  Conscientious  Discharge  of  Duty. 

The  Necessity  for  Conventional  Laws  and  Forms  in  Society. 

The  Fatal  Results  arising  from  an  Eariy  Neglect  of  the  Mental  Powers. 


LIST  OF   SUBJECTS.  433 

468.  The  Folly  of  expecting  too  much  from  our  Fellow-creature g. 

469.  The  Duty  of  Patient  Resignation  to  Misfortunes. 

470.  The  Necessity  of  examining  into  our  Secret  Motives  of  Action. 

471.  The  Advantages  to  be  derived  from  an  Acquaintance  with  Modem  Languages. 

472.  The  Difficulty  of  conquering  Bad  Habits. 

473.  The  Happy  Results  arising  from  the  Cultivation  of  Taste. 

474.  The  Soothing  Power  of  Music. 

475.  The  Importance  of  early  cultivating  the  Affections. 

476.  The  Beneficial  Effects  of  Constant  Intercourse  with  our  Fellow-creatures. 

477.  Charity,  an  Essential  Part  of  True  Religion. 

478.  Religious  Enthusiasm,  frequently  made  a  Mask  for  the  Basest  Purposes. 

479.  The  Danger  of  forming  Hasty  Judgments.    • 

480.  The  Importance  of  an  Early  Observance  of  Religious  Duties. 

481.  The  Folly  of  devoting  too  much  Time  to  Accomplishments. 

482.  The  Feelings  with  which  we  should  regard  Death. 

483.  The  Danger  of  indulging  in  a  Habit  of  Exaggeration. 

484.  The  Possession  of  a  Lively  Imagination,  a  Great  Misfortune. 

485.  The  Necessity  of  repressing  Idle  Curiosity  in  Youth. 

480.  The  Wisdom  of  not  giving  Free  Expression  to  all  our  Thoughts, 

487.  The  Folly  of  blindly  following  the  Judgment  and  Opinions  of  Others. 

488.  The  Vanity  of  Human  Grandeur. 

489.  Religion,  as  a  Civilizing  Agent. 

490.  The  Danger  of  becoming  too  much  addicted  to  the  Pleasures  of  the  World. 

491.  Our  Duties  to  our  Inferiors. 

492.  The  Folly  of  striving  to  please  every  one. 

493.  Innovation,  as  regai'ded  by  the  Young  and  by  tbe  Old. 

494.  The  Prospects  of  a  Young  Professional  Man  in  the  United  States. 

495.  Reading,  a  means  of  Intellectual  Improvement. 

496.  The  Use  and  Abuse  of  Worldly  Advantages. 

497.  Life  is  short  and  Art  is  long. 

498.  No  one  lives  for  himself  alone. 

499.  Independence  must  have  Limits. 

500.  Man  and  Government,  as  found  in  the  Savage,  the  Pastoral,  the  Agiicultural, 

and  the  Commercial,  State, 

501.  How  far  the  Right  should  be  controlled  by  the  Expedient. 

502.  Color,  as  an  Element  of  Beauty. 

503.  Poetry,  Painting,  Architectui'e,  and  Sculpture,  as  Means  of  refining  Taste. 

504.  The  Good  and  Bad  Effects  of  Emulation. 

505.  The  Influence  of  Greek,  Latin,  French,  and  English,  Literature,  on  Taste. 

506.  Ancient  and  Modern  Notions  of  Liberty. 

507.  Personal  Beauty,  Rank,  and  Wealth,  as  Passports  in  Society. 

508.  The  Study  of  Logic,  as  a  Mental  Discipline. 

509.  The  Respective  Effects  of  Agriculture  and  Manufactures  on  the  Morals  of  the 

Community. 

510.  An  Old  and  a  New  Country,  as  Fields  of  Enterprise. 

611.  Patronage,  Emulation,  and  Personal  Necessity,  as  Promotive  of  Literary 

Exertion. 

612.  The  Views  taken  of  a  Nation  by  itself  and  Others. 

513.  Ancient  and  Modem  Views  of  Death. 

514.  The  Comparative  Influence  of  Individuals  and  Leamed  Societies  in  forming 

the  Literary  Character  of  a  Nation. 

515.  Proofs  afforded  by  Astronomy  of  an  intelligent  Creator. 

19 


434  LIST   OF   SUBJECTS. 

BIG.  Beware  of  deeperatc  steps ;  the  darkest  day, 
Live  till  to-morrow,  will  have  passed  away. 

517.  There's  a  Divinity  that  shapes  our  ends, 
Rough  hew  them  how  we  may. 

518.  Health  is  the  vital  principle  of  hliss. 

519.  Heaven  from  all  creatures  hides  the  book  of  fate. 

520.  Be  it  ever  so  humble,  there's  no  place  like  horn©. 

521.  The  bolt  that  strikes  the  towei-ing  cedar  dead. 
Oft  passes  hai-mless  o'er  the  hazel's  head. 

523.  Who  by  repentance  is  not  satisfied. 
Is  nor  of  Heaven,  nor  earth. 

523.  Honor  and  shame  from  no  condition  rise : 
Act  well  your  part ;  there  all  the  honor  lie*. 

524.  Good  name  in  man  or  woman, 

Is  the  immediate  jewel  of  their  souls. 

525.  Sweet  are  the  uses  of  adversity. 

526.  Justice  may  sleep,  but  never  dies. 

527.  Man  yields  to  custom  as  he  bows  to  fate ; 
In  all  things  ruled— mind,  body,  and  estate. 

528.  Experience  is  the  school 
Where  man  learns  wisdom. 

529.  All  is  not  gold  that  glitters. 

530.  One  to-day  is  worth  two  to-morrows. 

531.  Birds  of  a  feather  flock  together. 

533.  All  the  world's  a  stage, 

And  all  the  meu  and  women  merely  players. 

ARGUMENTATIVE    DISCOURSES. 

533.  Was  Napoleon  greater  in  the  field  than  in  the  cabinet  ? 

534.  Is  conscience  in  all  cases  a  correct  moral  guide  ? 

535.  Do  inventions  improve  the  condition  of  the  laboring  classes  ? 

530.  Is  the  expectation  of  reward  a  greater  incentive  to  exertion  than  the  fear 
of  puniahmcnt  ? 

537.  Would  it  be  right  for  Congress  to  pass  an  InterHational  copy-right  law  f 

538.  Is  it  expedient  for  Congress  to  pass  an  International  copy-right  law  ? 

539.  Is  the  penal  transportation  of  convicts  as  efffective  in  preventing  crime  as 

solitary  confinement  ? 

540.  Is  the  country  a  better  place  for  a  University  than  a  large  city  ? 

541.  Are  increased  facilities  of  intercourse  with  Europe  an  advantage  to  UB  ? 

542.  Has  popular  superstition  a  favorable  effect  on  a  nation's  literature  ? 

543.  Do  savage  nations  possess  a  right  to  the  soil  ? 

544.  Ought  capital  pimishment,  as  a  matter  of  right,  to  be  abolished  ? 

545.  Ought  capital  pimishment,  as  a  matter  of  expediency,  to  be  abolished  f 

646.  Is  the  mind  of  woman  Inferior  to  that  of  man  ? 

647.  Is  it  expedient  that  a  new  version  of  the  Bible  should  be  made  t 

548.  Is  the  pen  mightier  than  the  sword  ? 

549.  Has  increased  wealth  a  favorable  effect  on  the  morals  of  a  people  f 

550.  Is  a  nation's  literature  affected  by  its  form  of  government  ? 

551.  Ought  there  to  be  a  property  qualification  for  suffrage  ? 

552.  Does  the  study  of  the  classics  afford  better  discipline  to  the  mind  than  that 

of  mathematics  ? 
653.  Is  truth  invincible,  if  loft  to  grapple  with  fiUechood  on  equal  temiB  t 


LIST  OF   SUBJECTS.  435 

554.  Is  a  monarchy  the  fstrongest  and  most  stable  form  of  government  ? 

555.  Is  it  beneficial  to  a  country  to  have  a  union  between  Church  and  State  ? 

556.  Did  the  Crusades  have  a  beneficial  influence  on  Europe  ? 

557.  Is  a  man  justified  in  obeying  a  law  of  his  country  which  he  feels  to  be 

morally  wrong  ? 

558.  Is  it  best  for  judges  to  be  elected  by  the  people  ? 

659.  Do  the  learned  professions  ofier  as  promising  an  opening  to  a  young  man 

as  mercantile  life  ? 
5G0.  Had  the  Olympic  and  other  games  a  favorable  eflTect  on  the  ancient  Greeks  ? 
561.  Is  the  existence  of  political  parties  beneficial  to  a  state  ? 

563.  Do  parents  exercise  a  greater  influence  than  teachers  in  forming  the  char- 

acter of  the  young  ? 
5G3.  Is  a  general  war  in  Europe  favorable  to  the  interests  of  America  ? 

564.  Does  climate  have  any  efffect  on  the  character  of  a  nation  ? 

565.  Is  a  lawyer  justified  in  defending  a  bad  cause  ? 

566.  Does  the  pulpit  afford  a  better  field  for  eloquence  than  the  bar  ? 


TABLE  OF  ABBREVIATIONS. 


A.,  acre  or  acres. 

A.  A.  S.,  Academke  Americance  Socius, 

Fellow  of  the  American  Academy. 
A.  B.,  Artium  BacccUaureus,  Bachelor 

of  Arts. 
A.  B.  C.  F.  M.,  American  Board  of  Com- 
missioners for  Foreign  Missions. 
A.  C,  ante  Christum,  before  Christ. 
Acct.,  account. 
A.  D.,  anno  DonUni^  in  the  year  of  our 

Lord. 
Ad  lib,,  ad  libitum,  at  pleasure. 
Adj.,  adjective. 
Adjt.,  Adjutant. 
Adjt.-Gen.,  Adjutant-General. 
Admr.,  Administrator. 
Admx.,  Administratrix. 
Adv.,  adverb. 
Mi.,  cetatis,  of  age. 
A.  &  F.  B.  S.,  American  and  Foreign 

Bible  Society. 
Agt.,  agent. 
Ala.  or  Al.,  Alabama. 
Aid.,  Alderman  or  Aldermen. 
Alex.,  Alexander. 
Alt.,  altitude. 
A.  M.,  Artium  Magister,  Master  of 

Arts. 
A.  M.,  anno  mundi,  in  the  year  of  the 

world. 
A.  M.,  ante  meridiem,  morning. 
Am.,  American. 
Amer.,  America. 
And.,  Andrew. 
Anon.,  anonymous. 
Ans.  or  A.,  answer. 
Anth.,  Anthony. 
Apoc,  Apocalypse. 
Apr.,  April. 


Arch.,  Archibald. 

Archb.  orApb,,  Archbishop. 

Ark.,  Arkansas. 

Art.,  article. 

Assist.  Sec,  Assistant  Secretary. 

A.  S.  S.  U.,  American  Sunday  School 

Union. 
Atty.,  Attorney.    Attys.,  Attorneys. 
Atty.-Gen.,  Attorney-General. 

A.  U.  C,  anno  urbis  conditce,  in  the  year 
after  the  building  of  the  city. 

Aug.,  August. 

Auth.  Ver.,  Authorized  Version. 

B.,  Book  or  Books. 

B.  A.,  Bacchlaurem  Artium^  Bachelor 
of  Arts. 

B.  A.,  British  America. 

Bar.  or  bl.,  barrel. 

Bar.,  Baruch. 

Bart.,  Baronet. 

B.  C,  before  Christ. 

B.  D.,  Baccalaureu*  Divinitaiis,  Bache- 
lor of  Divinity. 

Bcnj.,  Benjamin. 

B.  L..  Baccalaureus  Legum,  Bachelor 
of  Laws. 

Bis.  or  bbl.,  barrels. 

B.  M.,  Baccalaureus  Medicinal,  Bache- 
lor of  Medicine. 

B.  M.,  British  Mail. 

B.  M.  or  Brit.  Mus.,  British  Museum. 

Bp.,  Bl(*hop. 

B.  R.,  Banco  Regis,  King's  Bench. 

Br.,  brig. 

Brig.,  Brigade ;  Brigadier. 

Brig.-Gen.,  Brigadier-General. 

Bro.,  Brother.    Bros.,  Brothers. 

Bu.,  bushel  or  bushels. 

B.  v.,  Bcaia  Virgo,  Blessed  Virgin. 


ABBEEVIATIONS. 


437 


Cset.  par.,  cceteris  paribus,  other  thingc 
being  equal. 

Cal.,  Calendoe,  the  Calends. 

Cal.,  California. 

Can.,  Canada. 

Cantab.,  Cambridge. 

Cap.  or  c.,  caput,  chapter. 

Cap.,  Capital.    Caps.,  Capitals, 

Capt.,  Captain. 

Capt.-Gen.,  Captain-General. 

Cash.,  Cashier. 

Cath.,  Catharine ;  Catholic. 

C.  B.,  Companion  of  the  Bath. 

C.  C.  P.,  Court  of  Common  Pleas. 

C.E.,  Canada  East. 

Cf.,  confer,  compare. 

Ch.,  chaldron  or  chaldrons. 

Ch.,  Church,    Chs,,  Churches. 

Chanc,  Chancellor, 

Chap.,  c,  or  ch.,  chapter. 

Chas.,  Charles. 

Chron.,  Chronicles, 

CI.  Dom.  Com.,  Clerk  of  the  House  of 
Commons. 

Cld.,  cleared. 

Co.,  County;  Company. 

Coch.,  cocJdeare,  a  spoonful. 

Col.,  Colorado, 

Col.,  Colonel ;  Colossians. 

Coid.,  colored. 

Coll.,  Collegium,  College. 

Com.,  Commodore ;  Committee ;  Com- 
missioner. 

Com.  Arr.,  Committee  of  Arrangements.. 

Comdg.,  Commanding. 

Comp.,  Company  (Military). 

Comp.,  compare. 

Com.  Ver.,  Common  Version. 

Conj.,  conjunction. 

Conn,  or  Ct.,  Connecticut. 

Const.,  Constable ;  Constitution. 

Contr.,  contraction. 

Cor.,  Corinthians. 

Cor.  Sec,  Corresponding  Secretary. 

C.  P.,  Common  Pleas. 

C.  P.,  Court  of  Probate. 

C.  P.  S„  Cusios  Privati  SigiUi,  Keeper 
of  the  Privy  Seal. 

C  R.,  Gustos  Rotulorum,  Keeper  of  the 
RoUs. 

Cr.,  Creditor. 

C.  S,,  Court  of  Sessions. 


C,  S,,  Custos  Sigilli,  Keeper  of  the  Seal. 

Ct.,  Count. 

Ct.  or  c,  cent.    Cts,,  cents. 

Curt.,  current  (month). 

C.  W.,  Canada  West. 
Cwt.,  hundred- weight. 

D.,  day  or  days  ;  dime  or  dimes, 

D.,  denarius,  a  penny ;  denarii,  pence. 

Dan.,  Daniel. 

D.  C,  District  of  Columbia, 
D,  C.  L.,  Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 
D.  D.,  Doctor  of  Divinity. 
Dea.,  Deacon. 

Dec,  December. 

Deg.,  degree  or  degrees. 

Del,,  Delaware. 

Del.,  delineavit,  drew. 

Dcm.,  Democrat. 

Dep.,  Deputy;  Department. 

Deut.,  Deuteronomy. 

Dft.,  Defendant. 

D.  G.,  Dei  Gratia,  by  the  grace  of  God. 

Dist.  Atty.,  District  Attorney, 

Div,,  Division. 

Do.  or  ditto,  the  same. 

Doll,,  dollar.    Dolls,,  dollars. 

Doz.,  dozen. 

D.  P.,  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

Dr.,  dear ;  drachm  or  drachms. 

Dr.,  Doctor ;  Debtor. 

D.  V,,  Deo  volente,  God  willing. 
Dwt.,  pennyweight, 

E.,  East. 
Eben.,  Ebenezer. 
Eccl.,  Ecclcsiastes. 
Eccles.,  Ecclesiasticus. 
Ed.,  Editor;  Eds,,  Editors. 
Edin,,  Edinburgh. 
Edit,  or  Ed.,  edition. 
Edm.,  Edmund. 
Edw.,  Edward. 

E.  E.,  errors  excepted, 
E.  E.,  ell  or  ells  English. 
E.  Fl.,  ell  or  ells  Flemish. 
E.  Fr.,  ell  or  ells  French. 

E.  G.  or  ex.  g.,  exempli  gratia,  for  ex- 
ample. 
E.  I.,  East  Indies. 
Eliz.,  Elizabeth. 
Eng.,  England. 
Engd.,  engraved. 
Ep.,  Epistle. 


438 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


Eph.,  Ephraim ;  Ephcsians. 

E.  S,,  ell  or  ells  Scotch. 

Esq.,  Esquire.    Eeqrs.,  Esquires. 

Esth.,  Esther. 

Etal,  et  alibi,  and  elsewhere;  et  alii, 

and  others. 
Etc.,  ei  ccBter-i-ce-a,  and  so  forth. 
Et  seq.,  et  sequentla,  and  what  follows. 
Ex.,  Example. 
Esc,  Exception. 
Exec.  orExr.,  Executor. 
Exec.  Com.,  Executive  Committee. 
Execx.,  Executrix. 
Exod.,  Exodus. 
Ezd.,  Ezdra. 
Ezek.,  Ezekiel. 
Fahr.,  Fahrenheit. 

F.  A.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Antiquarian  So- 
ciety. 

Fath.,  fathom  or  fathoms, 

F.  D.,  Fidel  Defensor,  Defender  of  the 
Faith. 

Feb.,  February. 

F.  E.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Entomological 
Society. 

F.  G.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Geological  So- 
ciety. 

F.  II.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Horticultm-al  So- 
ciety. 

Fig.,  figure  or  figures. 

Fir.,  fli-kin  or  firkins. 

Fla.,  Flor.,  Florida. 

P.  L.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Linnsean  Society. 

F.  M.,  flat  mixtura,  let  a  mixture  be 
made. 

Fol.,  fo.,  or  f.,  folio  or  folios. 

Fred.,  Frederick. 

F.  R.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

F.  S.  A.,  Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Arts. 
Ft.  or  f.,  foot  or  feet. 

Fur.,  furlong  or  furlongs. 

Fut.,  Future. 

Ga.,  Georgia. 

Gal.,  Galatians. 

Gal.,  gallon.    Gals.,  gallons. 

G.B..  Great  Britain. 

G.  C.  B.,  Grand  Cross  of  thoBath. 
Gen.,  General ;  Genesis. 

Gent.,  Gentleman. 

Geo.,  George. 

Gov.,  Governor. 

Gov.-Gcn.,  Governor-General. 


G.  R.,  Georgius  Hex,  King  George. 

Gr.,  grain  or  grains. 

Guin.  or  G.,  guinea  or  guineas. 

II.  or  hr.,  hour  or  hours. 

nab.,  Habakkuk. 

Hag.,  Haggai. 

H.  B.  M.,  His  or  Her  Britannic  Majesty. 

Ileb.,  Hebrews. 

Hd.,  hogshead.    Hhd.,  hogsheads. 

H.  E.  I.  C,  Honorable  East  India  Com- 
pany. 

H.  M.,  His  or  Her  Majesty. 

H.  M.  S.,  His  or  Her  Majesty's  Ship  or 
Service. 

Hon.,  Honorable. 

Hon.  Gent.,  Honorable  Gentleman. 

Hon.  Mem..  Honorable  Member. 

Hon.  Sec,  Honorary  Secretary. 

Hos.,  Hosea. 

H.  P.,  half-pay. 

H.  R.  H.,  His  Royal  Highness. 

Hund.,  hundred  or  hundreds. 

I.,  island.    Is.,  islands. 

Ibid,  or  ib.,  ibidem,  in  the  same  placG. 

Id.,  idem,  the  same. 

I.  e.,  id  est,  that  is. 

I.  H.  S.,  Jesus  Hominum  Salvator,  Jesus 
the  Saviour  of  Men. 

m.,  Illinois. 

Imp.,  Imperfect. 

In.,  inch  or  inches. 

Incog.,  incognito,  unknown. 

Ind.  or  la.,  Indiana. 

Jn.  lim.,  in  limine,  at  the  outset. 

In  loc,  in  loco,  in  or  at  the  place. 

I.  N.  R.  I.,  Jesus  Nazarenus  Rex  Jtt' 
dxorum,  Jesus  of  Nazareth  King  of 
the  Jews. 

Ins.,  Inspector. 

Ins.-Gen.,  Inspector-General. 

Inst.,  instant,  of  this  month. 

Int.,  interest:  interjection. 

In  traas.,  in  transitu,  on  the  passage. 

lo.,  Iowa. 

I.  O.  O.  F.,  Independent  Order  of  Odd 
Fellows. 

Irreg.,  Irregular, 

Isa.,  Isaiah. 

Jan.,  January. 

Jas.,  James. 

J.  D.,  Jitrtim  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Laws. 

Jcr.,  Jeremiah. 


ABBEEVIATIONS. 


439 


Jno.,  John. 

Jona.,  Jonathan. 

Jos.,  Joseph. 

Josh.,  Joshua. 

J.  P.,  Justice  of  the  Peace, 

Jud.,  Judith. 

Judg.,  Judges. 

Judg.  Adv.,  Judge  Advocate. 

Jun.  or  Jr..  Junior. 

Just.,  Justice. 

J.  V.  D.,  Juris  utriusque  Doctor^  Doctor 
of  each  Law  (of  the  Canon  and  the 
Civil  Law). 

Kan.,  Kansas. 

K.  B.,  King's  Bench. 

K.  B.,  Knight  of  the  Bath. 

K.  C,  King's  Counsel. 

K.  C.  B.,  Knight  Commander  of  the 
Bath. 

Ken.  or  Ky.,  Kentucky. 

K.  G.,  Knight  of  the  Garter. 

Kil.,  kilderkin  or  kilderkins. 

K.  M.,  Knight  of  Malta. 

K.  P.,  Knight  of  St.  Patrick. 

K.  T.,  Knight  of  the  Thistle. 

Kt.  or  Knt.,  Elnight. 

L.,  line. 

La.,  Louisiana. 

Lam.,  Lamentations. 

Lat.,  latitude. 

Lb.,  pound  or  pounds  (weight). 

L.  C,  Lower  Canada. 

L.D.,  Lady  Day. 

Ld.,  Lord.    Ldp.,  Lordship. 

Leag.,  lea.,  or  1.,  league  or  leagues. 

L.  I.,  Long  Island. 

Lib.  or  1.,  lU)er^  Book. 

Lieut.,  Lieutenant. 

Lieut.-Col.,  Lieutenant-Colonel. 

Lieut.  Comdg.,  Lieutenant  Command- 
ing. 

Lieut.-Gen.,  Lieutenant-General. 

Lieut.-Gov.,  Lieutenant-Governor. 

Liv.,  Liverpool. 

LL.  B.,  Legum  Baccalaureus,  Bachelor 
of  Laws. 

LL.  D,,  Legum  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Laws. 

Lon.  or  Lond.,  London. , 

Lon.  or  long.,  longitude. 

L.  S.,  Locus  Sigilli,  Place  of  the  Seal. 

Lt.,  Light. 

Lt.  In.,  Light  Infantry. 


L  X  X.,  Scptuagint  (Version). 

M.,  mille,  one  thousand. 

M.,  manipultcs,  a  handful. 

M.,  meridie,.  mevidisin,  noon. 

M.,  misce,  mix. 

M.,  mile  or  miles. 

M.  or  Mons.,  Monsieur,  Mr.,  Sir. 

Mace,  Maccabees. 

Mag.,  Magazine. 

Maj.,  Major. 

Maj.-Gen.,  Major-Geueral. 

Mai.,  Malachi. 

Man.,  Manasses. 

Mar.,  March. 

Mass.  or  Ms.,  Massachusetts. 

Math.,  Mathematics. 

Matt.,  Matthew. 

M.  B.,  MediciruBBaccalaureus,  Bachelor 
of  Medicine. 

M.  B.,  Musiccs  Baccalaureus,  Bachelor 
of  Music. 

M.  C,  Member  of  Congress. 

M.  D.,  Medldrm  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Med- 
icine. 

Md.,  Maryland. 

Me.,  Maine. 

MQxa..,  memento,  remember;  memoran- 
dum. 

Messrs.,  Messieurs,  gentlemen. 

Mic,  Micah. 

Mich.,  Michigan;  Michael. 

Mid.,  Midshipman. 

Miss.,  Mississippi. 

Mo.,  Missouri. 

Mo.,  month.    Mos.,  months. 

M.  P.,  Member  of  Parliament. 

M.  P.,  Member  of  Police. 

Mr.,  Mister. 

M.  R.  A.  S.,  Member  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society. 

M.  R.  C.  S,,  Member  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Surgeons. 

M.  R.  I.  A.,  Member  of  the  Royal  Irish 
Academy. 

Mrs.,  Mistress. 

MS.,  manuscriptum,  manuscript 

MSS.,  manuscripts. 

Mus.  D.,  Doctor  of  Music. 

M.  W.,  Most  Worthy. 

K,  North. 

N.,  note  or  notes. 

N.  A.,  North  America, 


440 


ABBEEVIATIONS. 


Nah.,  Nahum. 
Nath.,  Nathaniel. 
N.  B.,  nota  bene,  mark  well. 
N.  B,,  New  Brunswick. 
N.  C,  North  Carolina. 
N.  E.,  New  England. 
Neb,,  Nebraska. 
Neh.,  Neheruiah. 

Nem.  con,,  nemine  contradicente ;  Nera. 
diss,  nemine  dissentiente,  unanimously. 
Ncv,,  Nevada. 
N.  F.,  Newfoundland. 
N.  n,,  New  Uampshire. 
N.  J.,  New  Jersey. 
Nl.,  nail.    Nls,,  nails. 
N.  M.,  New  Mexico. 
N.  O,,  Now  Orleans. 
No.,  numero,  in  number ;  number. 
Nos.,  numbers. 
Nov.,  November. 
N.  S.,  Nova  Scotia  ;  New  Style. 
N.  T.  or  New  Test,,  No\r  Testament. 
Num.,  Numbers. 
N.  Y.,  New  York. 
O.,  Ohio, 
Ob.,  objection. 
Obad,,  Obadiah. 
Obt.,  obedient. 
Oct.,  October. 
Olym.,  Olympiad. 
Or.,  Oregon. 
O.  S.,  Old  Style. 

O.  T.  or  Old  Test.,  Old  Testament. 
O,  U,  A.,  Order  of  United  Americans. 
Oxon.,  Oxford. 
O.?.,  ounce  or  ounces. 
P.,  page.    Pp.,  pages. 
P.,  pole  or  poles. 

P.  ocq,,  jmrtes  cequaies,  cqaal  parts. 
Par,,  paragraph. 
Part.,  participle. 
Payt,,  payment. 
Pd.,  paid, 

Penn.  or  Pa,,  Pennsylvania. 
Per  an.,  per  annum,  by  the  year. 
Perf,,  Perfect. 
Pet,,  Peter, 
Ph.  D.,  PhUosophUz  Doctor,  Doctor  of 

Philosophy. 
Phil.,  Philippians. 
Pliila.  or  Phil,,  Philadelphia. 
Pbilcm,,  Philemon. 


Pinx.  or  Pxt,,  pinxit,  painted. 

Plff.,  Plaintiff. 

P.  M,,  Post  Master. 

P.  M.,  post  meridiem,  evening. 

P,  M.  G.,  Post  Master  General. 

P.  O,,  Post  Office. 

Pop,,  population. 

Prep,,  preposition. 

Pres,,  President ;  present. 

Prob,,  Problem. 

Prof,,  Professor. 

Prop.,  Proposition. 

Prot,,  Protestant. 

Pro  tem.,  pro  tempore,  for  the  time 

being. 
Prov,,  Proverbs. 
Prox,,  ])7'oximo,  of  next  month. 
P.  R  S.,  President  of  the  Royal  Society. 
P.  S.,  Post  scriptum.  Postscript. 
P.  S,,  J^rivy  Seal. 
Ps.,  Psalm  or  Psalms. 
Pt.,  pint,    Pts.,  pints. 
Pub.  Doc,  Public  Documents. 
Pun,,  puncheon  or  puncheons. 
Q.,  Queen. 

Q.  or  Ques.,  Question. 
Q.,   Quadrans,   farthing ;    guadrantes, 

farthings, 
Q.  B.,  Queen's  Bench. 
Q,  C,  Queen's  Counsel. 
Q,  E,  D.,  quod  ei-at  demonstrandum, 

which  was  to  be  proved, 
Q.  E,  P.,  qvod  erat  faciendum,  which 

was  to  be  done. 
Q.  1,  or  q.  p.,  quantum  libet  or  placet,  as 

much  as  you  please. 
Qr.,  quarter. 
Q.   S,,   quantum  svfflcit,  a  sufflciciU 

quantity. 
Qt,,  quart.    Qts,,  quarts. 
Qy.,  Qucrj'. 

R.,  Rex,  King ;  Regiim,  Queen. 
R.,  rood  or  roods  ;  rod  or  rods. 
R.  A.,  Roj'al  Academician. 
R.  A,,  Royal  Artillery. 
R,  A,,  Russian  America. 
R.  E.,  Royal  Euglneere. 
Reed.,  Received. 
Rec.  Sec,  Recording  Secretary. 
Rect.,  Rector. 

Rcf.,  Reformed ;  Reformation 
Reg,,  Register. 


ABlBREViATlOKS. 


441 


Rcgt.,  Regiment. 

Rep.,  Representative, 

Re  v.,  Reverend ;  Revelations. 

R.  I.,  Rhode  Island. 

Richd.,  Richard. 

R.  M.,  Royal  Marines. 

R.  N.,  Royal  Navy. 

Robt.,  Robert. 

Rom.,  Roman ;  Epistle  to  the  Ro- 
mans. 

R.  R.,  Railroad. 

R.  S.  S.,  Regim  Socletatis  Socim,  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society. 

Rt.  Hon.,  Right  Honorable. 

Rt.  Rev.,  Right  Reverend. 

Rt.  Wpful.,  Right  Worshipful. 

R.W.,  Right  Worthy. 

S.,  South. 

S.,  shilling  or  shillings. 

S.  or  sec,  second  or  seconds. 

S.  A,,  South  America. 

Sam.,  Samuel  (Book  of). 

Saml.,  Samuel. 

S.  A.  S.,  Societatis  Anliquariorum  So- 
cins.  Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Anti- 
quarians. 

S.  C,  South  Carolina. 

Sc,  sciflpsit,  engraved. 

Sc,  scruple  or  scruples. 

S.  caps.,  small  capitals. 

Schr.,  Schooner. 

Soil.,  sc,  or  s.,  scilicet^  namely. 

Sec,  Secretary. 

Sect.,  sec,  or  s.y  section  or  sections. 

Sen.,  Senior;  Senate;  Senator. 

Sept.,  September. 

Serg.,  Sergeant. 

Scrg.-Maj.,  Sergeant-Major. 

Servt.,  servant. 

S.  J.  C,  Supreme  Judicial  Court. 

Sol.,  solution ;  Solomon. 

Sol.,  Solicitor. 

Sol.-Gen.,  Solicitor-General. 

S.  P.  Q,  R.,  Senatus  ]x^utttsq2te  liO' 
manus,  the  Senate  and  people  of 
Rome. 

Sq.  m.,  square  mile  or  miles. 

S.  S.,  Sunday  School. 

SS.,  sequeniia^  what  follows. 

St.,  Saint;  street. 

S.  T.  D.,  Sanctm  TJieologice  Docior^Doc- 
tor  of  Divinityi 


Ster.,  Sterling. 

S.  T.  P.,  Sanctce  Theologice  Professor, 
Professor  of  Divinity. 

S.  T.  T.  L.,  sit  tibi  terra  levis,  may  the 
earth  be  light  to  thee. 

Sup.,  Supplement;  Supernumerary. 

Surg.,  Surgeon. 

Surg.-Gen.,  Surgeon-General. 

Sus.,  Susannah. 

T,,  ton  or  tons. 

Tenn.,  Tennessee. 

Tex.,  Texas. 

Text.  Rec,  Texttcs  Heceptus,  the  Re- 
ceived Text. 

Theo.,  Theodore. 

Theor.,  Theorem. 

Thess.,  Thessalonians. 

Thos.,  Thomas. 

Tier.,  tierce  or  tierces. 

Tim.,  Timothy. 

Tit.,  Titus. 

T.  O.,  turn  over. 

Tob.,  Tobit. 

Tr.,  transpose. 

Tr.,  Tnistee.    Trs.,  Trustees. 

Trans.,  translation;  translator. 

Treas.,  Treasurer. 

U.  C,  Upper  Canada. 

U.  E.  I.  C,  United  East  India  Com* 
pany. 

U.  J.  D.,  Utriusque  Juris  Doctor,  Doctor 
of  each  Law  (Canon  and  Civil). 

U.  K.,  United  Kingdom. 

Ult.,  ultimo,  of  last  month. 

Univ.,  University. 

U.  S.,  United  States. 

U.  S.  A.,  United  States  of  America. 

U.  S.  A.,  United  States  Army. 

U.  S.  M.,  United  States  Mail. 

U,  S.  N.,  United  States  Navy. 

V.  or  vid.,  vide,  see. 

Va.,  Virginia. 

Ver.  or  v.,  verse  or  verses^ 

Vers.,  vs.,  or  v.,  versus,  against. 

V.  g.,  verbi  gratia,  for  example. 

Viz.,  videlicet,  namely. 

Vol.  or  v.,  volume.    Vols.,  Volume^. 

V.  Pres.  or  V.  P.,  Vice  President. 

V.  R.,  Victoria  Regind^  Quceii  Victoria» 

Vt.,  Vermont. 

W.,  West. 

W.  f.,  wrong  font* 


442 


AI31J11KVIATIOXS. 


W.  I„  West  Indies. 

Wis.,  Wisconsin. 

Wisd.,  Wisdom  (Book  of). 

Wk.  or  w.,  week. 

Wm.,  William. 

W.  T.,  Wasliington  Territory. 

VV^t.,  weight. 


W,  Va.,  West  Virginia. 

Xmas,  Christmas. 

Xn.,  Christian. 

Xnty.,  Christianity. 

Xt.,  Christ. 

Yr.,  year.    Yrs.,  years. 

&c.,  et  ccekr-irOE-a,  and  bo  forth. 


INDEX 


Abbreviations,  to  be  followed  by  periods, 
89.    Table  of,  436. 

Abridging,  in  wbat  it  consists,  340. 

Accent  (character),  acute,  where  used, 
149.  Grave,  where  used,  149.  Cir- 
cumflex, where  used,  149. 

Accent  (stress  of  the  voice),  tendency  to 
throw  it  back  in  polysyllables,  60.  In 
poetry,  constitutes  length,  403. 

Adage,  the,  345. 

Addison,  his  illustration  of  delicacy  of 
taste,  175.    His  style,  264. 

Adjectives,  origin  of,  30.  Definition  of, 
63. 

Adjunct,  definition  of,  69. 

Adverbs,  origin  of,  32.  Definition  of, 
64,  When  misplaced,  are  often  a 
source  of  obscurity,  286. 

Agreeableness,  held  by  some  to  consti- 
tute beauty,  215. 

Alexandrine,  the,  of  what  it  consists, 
411.  Where  used,  411.  Too  cumbrous 
for  an  entire  piece,  412. 

Alison,  his  view  of  taste,  171. 

Allegory,  what  it  is,  248. 

Allusions,  often  form  pleasing  introduc- 
tions, 332. 

AlpJiabet,  derivation  of  the  word,  24. 
The  Phoenician,  supposed  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  Hebrew,  27. 
The  Greek,  and  its  derivatives,  28. 
The  Latin,  derived  from  the  Greek, 
28.  The  English,  derived  from  the 
Latin,  28.  Number  of  letters  in  dif- 
ferent alphabets,  29. 


Ambiguity,  in  what  it  consists,  285.  A 
fault  of  frequent  occurrence,  290.  Its 
commonest  varieties,  290. 

Amphibrach,  the,  403. 

Amphimacer,  the,  403. 

Amplification,  in  what  it  consists,  329. 
Of  definitions,  333.  Of  arguments,  333. 

Analogy,  argument  from,  333. 

Analysis,  of  subjects,  326—328.  Should 
invariably  be  drawn  up,  329. 

Anapest,  the,  403. 

Anecdote,  the,  370. 

Angles,  the,  united  with  the  Saxons  in 
invading  England,  44.  Who  they 
were,  44.  Outnumbered  by  the  Sax- 
ons on  the  continent,  45.  Gave  their 
name  to  Britain,  44,  45. 

Anglo-Saxon  Language,  an  ofi'shoot  of 
Gothic,  46.  Modified  but  little  by  the 
Danish  invasions,  47.  Changes  by 
which  it  was  converted  into  English, 
51. 

Antibacchius,  the,  403. 

Anticlimax,  251. 

Antithesis,  250.  Used  in  Proverbs,  251. 
Often  employed  in  parallels,  343. 

Aphceresis,  236. 

Aphorism,  the,  345. 

Ajwcope,  236. 

Apologue,  the,  339. 

Apopliasis,  252. 

Apophthegm,  the,  345. 

Apostrophe,  meaning  of  the  word,  143. 
Form  and  position  of  the  character  so 
called,  142.  Kules  for  the,  142.  When 
used  to  denote  the  omission  of  letters, 
142.    Used  to  form  the  plural  of  let- 


444: 


INDEX. 


tcrs,  &c.,  143.  The  figure  so  called 
250. 

Appeal  to  the  feelings,  in  an  argumenta- 
tive discour:je,  389. 

Archaism,  230. 

Arguinenf,  what  is  it,  354. 

Argumentative  Discourse^  the,  885.  For- 
mal divisions  of,  385. 

Arguments,  proper  arrangement  of,  389. 

Aristotle,  his  rules  for  unity  of  action, 
169. 

Armorican  Language,  its  wonderful  re- 
semblance to  Welsh,  38. 

Art,  its  relation  to  science,  165. 

Article,  the,  definition  of,  63.  The  defi- 
nite, 63.    The  indefinite,  63. 

Associations,  instrumental  in  increasing 
the  pleasures  of  the  imagination,  186. 
Personal,  187.  National,  187.  Histor- 
ical, 187.  Source  of  sublimity  in 
sounds,  200.  Source  of  beauty  in 
sounds,  223. 

Asterisk,  the,  where  used,  151. 

Ast^rism,  the,  where  used,  150. 

AsTjndeton,  294. 

B. 

Bacchitis,  the,  4a3. 

Ballad,  the,  defined,  422. 

Barbarisms,  of  what  they  conslBt,  271. 

Battles,  sublime  descriptions  of,  202. 

Beauty,  character  of  the  emotions  it  ex- 
cites, 214.  Variety  of  its  applications, 
215.  Theories  as  to  its  source,  215. 
Color,  one  of  its  chief  elements,  216. 
Regularity  of  figure,  one  of  its  ele- 
ments, 217.  Hogarth's  line  of,  217. 
Smoothness,  essential  ^o  it,  218.  Gen- 
tle motion,  an  element  of,  218.  Small- 
ness  and  delicacy,  elements  of,  219. 
Design,  a  source  of,  219.  Moral  beau- 
ty, 221.  Beauty  of  the  human  counte- 
nance, 221 ;  depends  mainly  on  the  ex- 
I)res8ion,  222.  Beautiful  sounds,  223. 
The  beautiful  in  writing,  223. 

belles-lettres,  its  meaning  in  the  French 
language,  166.  Its  general  accepta- 
tion in  English,  167. 

B^le,  sublimity  of  the,  210. 

Biographij,  what  it  is,  869.  Style  ap- 
])ropriate  to,  369. 

Blank  Verse,  a  favorable  medium  for 
expressing  eublime  ideas,  212.     Of 


what  it  consists,  412.  Tho  most  ele- 
vated of  all  measures,  412.  Most  dif- 
ficult to  write,  412. 

Bombast,  213. 

Brace,  the,  for  what  used,  151. 

Brackets,  for  what  they  are  used,  139, 
140.  How  to  punctuate  matter  with- 
in brackets,  140. 

Bretagm,  tradition  respecting  its  settle- 
ment, 39. 

Breve,  the,  150. 

Britain,  state  of,  before  the  Roman  con- 
quest, 34.  Settled  by  Celti*,  35.  Ger- 
man colonics  planted  there  at  an  early 
date,  42.  Invasion  of,  by  the  Saxons, 
43.  Invasion  of,  by  the  Danes,  46. 
Conquest  of,  by  the  Normans,  48. 

Burlesque,  a  species  of  wit,  227.  A  bur- 
lesque, what  it  is,  421. 

Burletla,  the,  defined,  421. 


C. 

Cadence,  of  periods,  803. 

Cad7nus,  the  introducer  of  letters  into 
Greece,  25. 

Cainbnan,  a  branch  of  the  Celtic  tongue, 
33. 

CaintaJs,  74.  Rules  for,  74— 78.  Small, 
78.  Too  free  use  of,  to  be  avoided, 
78.  When  used  for  figures,  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  periods,  89. 

Captions,  what  they  are,  155. 

Cai^et,  the,  for  what  used,  152. 

Catch-words,  whet  they  are,  155. 

Cedilla,  the,  where  used,  152. 

Celtic  Language,  the  parent  of  many 
tongues,  36.  An  ofl'shoot  from  the  lie- 
brew  or  Phoenician,  37.  Branches  of, 
88.  Its  peculiar  features,  .39.  Celtic 
of  Britain,  how  far  modified  during 
the  period  of  Roman  supremacy,  40 ; 
Bupcreeded  by  Saxon,  44.  English 
words  derived  from  it,  55. 

Characters,  astronomical,  153. 

Chaucer,  writings  of,  50. 

Cicero,  the  most  harmonious  of  writers, 
801. 

Circumlocutions,  indefinite,  violate  pre- 
cision, 282. 

Clarendon,  the  style  of,  often  violates 
unity,  311. 

Clause,  definition  of,  09.    RelaUto,  60. 


INDEX. 


445 


Participial,  69.  Adrerbial,  C9.  Voca- 
tive, 70.  Adjective,  70.  Appositional, 
70.  Causal,  70.  Hypothetical,  70. 
Dependent,  70.  Independent,  70. 
Vocative  and  causal,  never  restric- 
tive, 110.  Participial,  when  restric- 
tive, 111.  Appositional,  rule  for  punc- 
tuating, 113.  Absolute,  to  be  set  off 
by  the  comma,  116. 

Vlearness^  in  what  it  consists,  284.  In- 
volves purity,  propriety,  and  pre- 
cision, 284.  Faults  opposed  to  it, 
284. 

Climax,  what  it  is,  251.  Derivation  of 
the  term,  251.    Climax  of  sound,  251. 

Coining,  of  words,  forbidden  except  to 
those  who  are  unfolding  a  new  sci- 
ence, 272.    Of  compound  words,  272. 

Colloquialisms,  to  be  avoided,  276. 

Colon,  derivation  of  the  word,  97.  Its 
first  use,  97.  Formerly  much  used, 
97.  Its  place  at  the  present  day 
usurped  by  the  semicolon,  97.  Rules 
for  the,  97—99.  When  to  be  followed 
by  a  dash,  98. 

Coloi',  one  of  the  chief  elements  of 
beauty,  216.  Peculiarities  which  en- 
hance its  beauty,  216. 

Comedy,  defined,  420. 

Coinedy,  English,  too  often  disgraced  by 
obscenity,  233. 

Comma,  meaning  of  the  word,  104.  De- 
gree of  separation  it  denotes,  104. 
Not  found  in  early  manuscripts,  104. 
How  previously  denoted,  104.  Gen- 
eral rule  for  the,  104.  Special  rules 
for  the,  106—126.  Cautions  in  the  use 
of,  128.  Not  to  be  introduced  simply 
because  a  sentence  is  long,  128.  Not 
to  be  used  after  a  grammatical  sub- 
ject when  immediately  followed  by 
its  verb,  128.  Not  to  be  used  before 
and  connecting  two  words  only,  128. 
To  be  omitted  when  there  is  doubt  as 
to  the  propriety  of  using  it,  129. 

Communication,  media  of,  13. 

Comjx)sition,  successive  steps  of,  329. 
The  art  defined,  348. 

Compositions,  revision  of,  334.  Sugges- 
tions as  to  the  correction  of,  335. 

Omciseness,  essential  to  sublimity  in 
writing,  207.  Carried  to  excess,  pro- 
duces obscurity,  266. 


Conjunctions,  origin  of,  32.  Definition 
of,  64.    List  of,  64. 

Connection  of  words,  clauses,  and  mem- 
bers, general  principles  relating  to 
the,  87,  83. 

Contrast,  a,  heightened  by  a  resem- 
blance in  language  and  construction, 
298. 

Correspondence  epistolary,  356. 

Countenance,  beauty  of  the,  222. 

Couplet,  the,  of  what  it  consists,  402. 
The  heroic  should  have  complete 
sense  within  itself,  411.  Delights  in 
antitheses,  411. 

Cousin,  his  view  of  taste,  171. 

Criticism,  fatal  to  the  pleasures  of  the 
imagination,  185.  Reason  why  it  is  sel- 
dom correct  in  the  case  of  young  per- 
sons, 185.  Definition  of,  318.  De- 
veloped the  rules  of  rhetoric,  318. 
Beauty  and  truth,  its  objects,  319. 
Relation  between  its  ancient  and  its 
present  character,  319.  Literary,  320 ; 
its  office,  320 ;  should  be  based  ou 
feeling  as  well  as  rules,  321 ;  abuse 
of,  321 ;  objections  to,  322 ;  its  prin- 
ciples not  arbitrary,  322. 

Curiosity,  a  universal  passion,  191. 

D. 

Dactyl,  the,  403. 

Darkness,  a  source  of  sublimity,  197. 

Dash,  but  lately  introduced,  131.  Too 
freely  used  at  the  present  day,  131. 
Rules  for  the  use  of,  131—1.34.  When 
to  be  used  after  other  points,  132, 133. 
When  used  to  denote  the  omission, 
of  letters,  142. 

Dates,  how  to  be  written,  126. 

Definitions,  how  they  may  be  amplified, 
333. 

Delicacy,  an  element  of  beauty,  219. 

Description,  in  what  it  consists,  318. 
Of  material  objects,  349.  Of  natural 
scenery,  350.    Of  persons,  351. 

Design,  an  element  of  beauty,  219. 
Unity  of,  essential  to  the  effect  of  a 
composition,  220. 

DicBresis,  the,  for  what  used,  151.  Mean- 
ing of  the  word,  152.  The  figure  so 
called,  236. 

Dialogue,  the,  376.  Used  for  the  discus- 
sion of  serious  topics,  370. 


44:6 


INDEX. 


Didactic  Poetry^  423. 

Diffmeness,  too  great,  to  be  avoided, 
266. 

Dimeter,  of  what  it  consists,  404. 

Diminutives,  origin  of,  219. 

Disorder,  a  source  of  sublimity,  198. 

Disquisition,  the,  380. 

Dissertation,  the,  380. 

Distich,  the,  what  it  is,  402. 

Division,  the,  of  an  argumentative  dis- 
course, 387. 

Division-Marks,  150. 

Double  Comma,  the,  for  wliat  used,  152. 

Double  Dagger,  the,  151. 

Dramas,  of  what  they  consist.  Sin. 
Derivation  of  the  term,  419.  Division 
of,  into  acts  and  scenes,  421. 

Dramatic  Poetry,  closely  allied  to  Epic, 
419.  Three  dramatic  unities,  420. 
Leading  divisions  of,  420. 

Dramatists,  the  distinguished,  of  an- 
tiquity, 420.  The  distinguished,  in 
modem  literatures,  420. 

Eclogue,  the,  423. 

Editorial,  the,  380. 

Elegiac  Poetry,  of  what  it  treats,  423. 

Ellipsis,  marks  of,  151.  The  figure  bo 
called,  237.  Improper,  a  cause  of  ob- 
scurity, 285. 

Emphasis-Marks,  150. 

E7ns,  what  they  are,  154. 

Enallage,  what  it  is,  238.  Does  not 
justify  a  violation  of  syntactical  rules, 
238. 

England,  a  corruption  of  Angleland,  44. 

English  Language,  the,  formation  of,  49. 
First  book  in,  50.  Its  forms  settled 
by  Wicliffe's  translation  of  the  Bible, 
50.  Its  Saxon  derivatives,  52,  53.  Its 
Norman-Fiench  derivatives,  53.  Its 
modern  French  derivatives,  51.  Its 
Latin  derivatives,  54.  Its  Celtic  de- 
rivatives, 55.  Its  Greek  derivatives, 
50.  Its  miscellaneous  elements,  66. 
Four-tifths  of  its  current  words,  of 
Saxon  origin,  57.  Its  characteristics, 
B7.  Its  orthography,  58.  Its  syntac- 
tical constructions,  58.  Its  variety, 
58.  Its  poetical  terms,  53,  Its  strength, 
69.  Its  fiexibillty,  00.  ltd  harmony, 
60.    Its  simplicity,  01. 


Epic  Poetry,   of  what  it  treats,  418. 

Unity  of  design,  essential  to,  418. 

Epic  poems  of  different  languages, 

419.    Derivation  of  the  term  epic,  419. 

The  plot  of  an  epic,  what  it  should  be, 

419. 
Epigram,  the,  defined,  423. 
Ejnlogue,  the,  421. 
Episodes,  what  they  are,  418. 
Epitomizing,  in  what  it  consists,  846. 
Em^ea,  the,  419. 
Equivocation,  in  what  it  consists,  284. 

Varieties  of,  289. 
Erse  Language,  a  branch  of  Celtic,  38. 
Essays,  379.    Wide  application  of  tho 

term,  379.    Difi'erent  classes  of,  380. 

Latitude  allowed  in  the  conduct  of, 

380. 
Etjjmology,  figures  of,  236. 
Exclamation  (the  figure),  250. 
Exclamation-point,  rules  for  the  use  of 

tho,  92—95.    Does  not  always  denote 

the  same  degree  of  separatlori,  93. 

Use  of  more  than  one,  95. 
Exordium,  the,  386. 
Exposition,  in  what  it  consists,  354. 
Expression,  has  much  to  do  with  beauty 

of  countenance,  222. 


Fable,  the,  a39. 

Farce,  the,  defined,  421. 

Feet,  what  they  are,  403.  Enumeration 
of,  403.  Primary,  404.  Secondary, 
404. 

Fiction,  what  it  is,  374.  May  be  made 
the  vehicle  of  good  or  evil,  375. 

Figw'e,  regularity  of,  a  source  of  beau- 
ty, 217 ;  not  synonymous  with  same- 
ness, 217. 

Figures,  what  they  are,  235.  Four 
classes  of,  235.  Of  orthography,  235. 
Of  etymology,  230,  Of  syntax,  237. 
Of  rhetoric,  239,  246;  origin  of,  ^40; 
history  of  figurative  language,  241 ; 
most  used  in  the  early  stages  of  so- 
ciety, 242;  grow  lesa  common  as  a 
language  progresses  in  refinement, 
242;  advantages  accruing  from  tho 
use  of,  242—244;  frequently  convey 
tho  meaning  more  forcibly  than  plain 
language,  241;  rules  for  the  u?e  of, 
244—254;  not  absolutely  essential  to 


INDEX. 


447 


beauty  of  composition,  244;  ehould 
not  ha  the  chief  object  had  in  view, 
255 ;  Bhould  spring  naturally  from  the 
subject,  255;  should  not  be  used  to 
excess,  255. 

French  Language,  the  source  of  many 
English  words,  54.  Character  of  the, 
59.  Its  poetry,  without  rhyme,  indis- 
tinguishable from  prose,  59. 

Frigidity/,  213. 

Frisian  Language,  its  resemblance  to 
English,  45. 

Fiisians,  reasons  for  supposing  that 
they  engaged  in  the  invasion  of  Brit- 
ain, 45.    Where  they  lived,  45. 

Frontispiece,  the,  155. 

G. 

Gaelic,  a  branch  of  Celtic,  33. 

GaUicisms,  2T3. 

Gardens,  Chinese,  193. 

Genius,   distinction   between   it    and 

taste,  181,.  182.    Universal,  183. 
Germanic    Languages,    offshoots    of 

Gothic,  46. 
Gestures,  14.     Extent  to  which  they 

were  carried  on  the  ancient  stage,  15. 

Decline  of  their  use,  16. 
Gothic  Language,  its  two  great  branch- 
es, 46. 
Grace,  Hogarth's  line  of,  217.    What  it 

is,  221. 
Grandeur,  see  Sublimity. 
Greek  Language,  the,  English  scientific 

terms  borrowed  from,  50. 


Harmony,  in  what  it  consists,  299. 
Words  to  be  avoided  as  inharmo- 
nious, 300.  Requires  the  writer  to 
avoid  repeating  a  sound,  300.  Re- 
quires him  to  avoid  a  succession  of 
words  of  the  same  number  of  syl- 
lables, 301.  Depends  on  the  proper 
arrangement  of  the  parts' of  a  sen- 
tence, 301.  Carried  to  greater  perfec- 
tion in  the  ancient  languages,  than  in 
ours,  301.  Danger  of  paying  too  much 
attention  to,  302.  Requires  that  the 
fullest  clauses  and  most  sonorous 
words  be  reserved  for  the  close  of  a 
•entence,  303.    Highest  kind  of,  con- 


sists in  the  adaptation  of  sound  to 
sense,  304. 
Bead-lines,  what  they  are,  155. 
Hebrews,  their  claim  to  the  invention  of 

letters,  26. 
Hemistich,  a,  what  it  is,  402. 
Hengist  and  Horsa,  expedition  of,  42. 
Hengist'a    stratagem  for  procuring 
land,  43. 
Heptameter,  of  what  it  consists,  404. 
The  regular  ballad-measure   of  our 
language,  408.    Generally  written  in 
two  lines,  408. 
Heroic  Line,  its  character,  410.    Used 
in  the  Spenserian  stanza,  410.    Most 
commonly  found  in  the  form  of  the 
couplet,  411.  Constitute  blank  verse, 
412. 
Hexameter,  of  what  it  consists,  404. 
Hieroglyphics,  21. 
Hindoos,  their  claim  to  the  invention 

of  letters,  26. 
Historians,  of  England,  368.    Of  Amer- 
ica, 369. 
History,  a,  what  it  is,  368.    Essentials 
of  a  good  history,  368.    Style  appro- 
priate to,  369. 
Hogarth,  his  line  of  beauty  and  line  of 

grace,  217. 
Hume,  his  view  of  taste,  170. 
Humx)r,  in  what  it  consists,  231.    Op- 
posed to  the  pathetic,  232.    Its  sub- 
jects, 232.    Not  short-lived,  like  wit, 
232.    Novelty  not  essential  to  it,  232. 
Enters    into    every   literature,    233. 
Carried  to  the  greatest  perfection  in 
Don  Quixote,  233.     Distinction  be- 
tween it  and  ridicule,  233. 
Hymn,  the,  422. 
Hyperbaton,  what  it  is,  238.      Enters 

largely  into  poetry,  238. 
Hyperbole,  what  it  is,  219.  Occurs  in 
common  conversation,  249.  Has  its 
origin  in  liveliness  of  imagination, 
249.  Violent  hyperbole,  out  of  place 
in  mere  descriptions,  259.  May  be  so 
extravagant  as  to  render  the  writer 
ridiculous,  259. 
Hyphen,  derivation  of  the  word,  143. 
What  it  is  used  to  denote,  143.  Rules 
for  its  use,  143,  144.  Sometimes 
employed  instead  of  the  diaeresis, 
144. 


448 


INDEX. 


I. 

Jamhus^  the,  403. 

Idyl,  the,  423. 

Imagery,  or  Virion,  250. 

Imagination,  defined,  1&3.  Pleasures 
of,  183;  process  by  which  they  are 
excited,  183.  Its  exuberance  in  youth 
fatal  to  sound  criticism,  180.  Its 
pleasures  increased  by  associations, 
186.  Has  had  much  to  do  with  the 
origin  of  figures,  2^11.  Vividness  of, 
apt  to  betray  the  young  into  too  great 
floridity,  264. 

Imitation,  fidelity  of,  a  source  of  pleas- 
ure to  the  imagination,  190.  Servile, 
to  be  avoided,  316. 

Index,  or  Hand,  for  what  used,  150. 

Induction,  the  process  of,  333. 

Infinitive  Mood,  when  to  be  preceded 
by  the  comma,  124. 

Infinity,  a  source  of  sublimity,  196. 

Interjections,  the  first  words,  29.  Defi- 
nition of,  65.  To  be  followed  by  ex- 
clamation-points, 94. 

Interrogation  (the  figure),  250. 

Interrogation-point,  rules  for  the,  91. 
Does  not  always  denote  the  same  de- 
gree of  separation,  93. 

Introduction,  importance  of  an  eflfective, 
830.  Varieties  of,  331,  a32.  Of  an 
argumentative  discourse,  386;  mod- 
esty, essential  to  It,  387.  Should  be 
accommodated  to  the  discourse  that 
is  to  follow,  387. 

Invention,  not  a  division  of  rhetoric, 
161.  In  what  it  consists,  325.  The 
most  difficult  part  of  composition,  325. 

Ireland,  originally  peopled  by  Cartha- 
ginian colonies,  35. 

Irony,  234,  252. 

Italian  Language,  origin  of  the,  41. 

Italics,  how  indicated  in  manuscript, 
154.  For  what  used,  154.  Not  to  be 
too  freely  employed,  154.  Their  use 
in  the  English  Bible,  154. 

J. 

Jeu  de  mots,  230. 
Justice,  poetical,  420. 

K. 

Kasdterides,  or  SciUy  Isles,  intercourse 
of  tlie  Phoenicians  with  the,  36. 
Peopled  by  Celts,  36. 


Lampoon,  the,  423. 

Language,  spoken,  16;  its  origin,  17; 
theories  as  to  its  origin,  18 ;  the  gift 
of  Deity,  19.  Written  language,  20 ; 
its  different  systems,  21.  The  Phoe- 
nician, written  from  right  to  left,  28. 
Mode  of  writing  the  Greek,  28.  Grad- 
ual development  of  a  system  of,  29. 
English,  see  English  .Language.  Irish, 
supposed  to  have  been  derived  from 
the  Phoenician,  .35.  Celtic,  see  Celtic 
Language.  Effect  of  climate  and  at- 
mosphere on,  38.  Individual  lan- 
guages affected  by  the  character  of 
those  who  speak  them,  59. 
Latinizing,  of  Johnson  and  his  imi- 
tators, 55. 
Latin  Language,  English  words  de- 
rived from  it,  54. 
Leaders,  152. 

Leads,  what  they  are,  1&4. 
Letters   (characters),    introduced    into 
Greece  by  Cadmus,  25.    First  divided 
into  different  classes  by  Tliaut,  25. 
Their  Invention  attributed  to  Thaut 
by  Sanchonlathon,  25.    The  honor  of 
their  inveutiou  claimed  by  the  In- 
dians, 26. 
Letters  (species  of  composition),  356. 
News,  356.   Of  business.  356.  Official, 
356.  Of  friendship,  .357.  Of  condolence, 
a57.  Of  congrarnlation,  358.   Of  Intro- 
dnction,358.  Style  of,  358.  Answers  to, 
359.  Manual  execution  of,  359.     Date 
of,  a59.    Address  of,  360.    Subscrip- 
tion  of,  361.    Folding  and  sealing  of, 
365.    Superscription  of,  366. 
Licenses,  poetical,  401. 
Lyric  Poetry,  421. 

Ifl. 

Machine.ry,  of  an  epic  poem,  419. 

Macron,  the,  150. 

Madrigal,  the,  422. 

Manmrism,  what  it  is,  270.  An  excess 
of  It  to  be  avoided,  216. 

Maxim,  the,  ^45. 

Measures,  defined,  404.  Varieties  of, 
404.  Iambic,  4a") ;  constitute  the  great 
body  of  our  poetry,  40(5.  Trochaic, 
405 ;  adapted  to  gay  and  tender  sen- 
timents, 406.    Anapestic,  405 ;  adapt- 


INDEX. 


449 


ed  to  animated  sentiments,  406.  Dac- 
tylic, 406;  difficult  to  write,  407. 

Melodrama,  the,  421. 

Metaphor,  what  it  is,  248.  The  com- 
monest of  figures,  248.  Should  not 
be  far-fetched,  trite,  obscure,  or  in- 
appropriate, 258.  Metaphorical  and 
plain  language  should  not  be  blended, 

258.  Mixed  metaphors,  to  be  avoided, 

259.  Should  not  be  carried  too  far,  259. 
Metonymy,  what  it  is,  249.    Relations 

on  which  it  is  founded,  249. 

Metre,  long,  407.  Common,  407.  Short, 
408. 

Might,  actively  exerted,  the  principal 
source  of  the  sublime,  195. 

Mimesis,  236. 

Molossus,  the,  403. 

Monometer,  of  what  it  consists,  404. 

Motion,  when  gentle,  an  element  of 
beauty,  218.  When  very  swift,  an 
element  of  sublimity,  218.  Often 
vividly  represented  in  composition 
by  peculiar  combinations  of  words, 
306. 

Mime,  eflfect  of,  increased  by  associa- 
tions, 187,  200.  When  beautiful,  and 
when  sublime,  222. 

N. 

Narration,  what  it  is,  353. 

Narratives,  what  they  are,  367.  Classes 
of,  368. 

Nature,  the  productions  of,  a  source  of 
pleasure  to  the  imagination,  190. 

Noi^man  French,  origin  of,  41.  First 
introduction  of,  into  England,  under 
Edward  the  Confessor,  47.  Made  the 
court  language  under  William  the 
Conqueror,  48.  Source  of  many  Eng- 
lish words,  53. 

Notes,  366.    Of  invitation,  366. 

Nouns,  origin  of,  30.  Definition  of,  62. 
Common,  62.    Proper,  62. 

Novel,  the,  375. 

Novelty,  a  source  of  pleasure  to  the  im- 
agination, 191.  Different  degrees  of, 
192.  Essential  to  the  effect  of  a  pun, 
230. 

Number,  plural,  origin  of  the,  30. 

O. 

0  and  ohy  dififoreuce  between,  78. 


ObelisJc,  or  Dagger,  151. 

Obituary,  the,  369. 

Obscurity,  a  source  of  sublimity,  197. 
As  opposed  to  clearness,  in  what  it 
consists,  284;  causes  from  which  it 
results,  285. 

Odometer,  of  what  it  consists,  404.  Gen- 
erally written  in  two  lines,  408. 

Ode,  the,  422. 

Omission  (the  figure),  252. 

Onomatopoeia,  252.    Continued,  305. 

Oration,  the,  386,  392.  Style  appro- 
priate to,  393. 

Orthography,  figures  of,  235. 

Ossian,  why  his  writings  are  classed  as 
poems,  59.  One  of  the  sublimost  of 
writers,  211.  Description  of  his  style, 
211. 


Paragoge,  233. 

Paragraph  (character),  where  used,  150. 
Meaning  of  the  word,  150. 

Paralijms,  252. 

Parallels  (character),  151. 

Parallels  (a  variety  of  composition),  342. 

Paraphrase,  what  it  is,  344. 

Parentheses,  meaning  of  the  word,  136. 
How  indicated  in  reading,  136.  Much 
used  by  old  writers,  136.  In  disfavor 
with  modern  critics,  136.  Rules  for 
the  use  of,  137—139.  Their  proper 
place  in  a  sentence,  137.  How  to 
punctuate  matter  within  parentheses, 
138.    Long,  to  be  avoided,  312. 

Parenthetical  Expressions,  104.  Where 
generally  used,  104.  To  be  preceded 
and  followed  by  the  comma,  104,  106, 
107.    Examples  of,  105. 

Parodies,  what  they  are,  226,  421. 

Paronomasia,  see  Pun. 

Parsing,  difficulties  in,  explained,  66. 

Participles,  definition  of,  64.  Number 
of,  64. 

Particles,  splitting  of,  295. 

Pasquinade,  the,  423. 

Pastoral  Poetry,  423. 

Patriotism,  a  source  of  moral  sublimity, 
205. 

Pauses,  should  be  distributed  at  proper 
intervals,  302.  Poetical,  415 ;  primary, 
415 ;  secondary,  415,  416. 

Pentameter,  of  what  it  consists,  404. 


450 


INDEX. 


Iambic,  constitutes  the  Iieroic  line, 
410;  its  character,  410;  used  in  the 
Spenserian  stanza,  410;  most  com- 
monly found  in  the  form  of  the  coup- 
let, 411. 

Period,  meaning  of  the  term,  86.  Found 
in  manuscripts  of  an  early  date,  86. 
Rules  for  the,  87—90.  When  used  to 
denote  the  omission  of  letters,  142. 

Feroration,  the,  of  an  argumentative 
discourse,  389. 

Personification,  250. 

Perspicuity,  see  Clearness. 

Phrases,  definition  of,  69. 

Picturesque,  the,  193, 194. 

Pleonasm,  237. 

Plot,  the,  what  it  is,  374.  Characteris- 
tics of  a  good,  374. 

Poetry,  what  compositions  it  embraces, 
400.  Features  that  distinguish  it  from 
prose,  401.    Varieties  of,  418. 

Points,  punctuation,  first  use  of,  81.  To 
be  used  independently  of  reading- 
pauses,  84.  Used  to  separate  words 
and  clauses,  84.  Used  to  indicate  the 
parts  of  speech,  84.  Show  to  what 
class  a  sentence  belongs,  85.  Indicate 
sudden  transitions,  85.  Denote  the 
omission  of  words,  85.  Must  be  used 
only  when  there  is  a  positive  rule  for 
Bo  doing,  85.   Enumeration  of  the,  86. 

Polysyndeton,  295. 

Portuguese  Language,  origin  of  the,  42. 

Possessive  Case,  rules  for  the  formation 
of  the,  142. 

Precision,  derivation  of  the  term,  279. 
In  what  it  consists,  279.  Violated  by 
a  want  of  discrimination  in  the  use 
of  synonymcs,  279,  Rejects  unneces- 
sary words,  281.  Often  violated  by 
indefinite  circumlocutions,  282. 

Predicate,  what  it  is,  68.  When  the 
comma  must  bo  inserted  in  a  com- 
pound, 119. 

Ptepositions,  origin  of,  30.  Defined,  64. 
List  of,  64.  List  of  prepositions  that 
follow  certain  words,  159.  Should 
not  close  a  sentence,  297. 

Prescott,  remarks  on  the  stylo  of,  869. 

Prologue,  the,  421. 

Prormins,  adjective,-  origin  of,  81 ;  defi- 
nition of,  03.  Personal,  origin  of,  31 ; 
definition  of,  02.    Relative,  origin  of, 


32;  definition  of,  62.  Interrogative, 
definition  of,  62.  The  same  pronoun 
not  to  refer  to  different  objects  in  the 
same  sentence,  287. 

Propriety,  in  what  it  consists,  270. 
Faults  opposed  to  it,  276.  Violated 
by  the  confounding  of  derivatives, 
276. 

Prase,  compositions  it  embraces,  318. 

Prosopo2)oeia,  250. 

Prosthesis,  236. 

Proverb,  the,  345. 

Psalm,  the,  422. 

Pun,  the,  230.  Novelty  essential  to  its 
effect,  230. 

Punctuation,  what  it  is,  81.  By  whom 
invented,  81.  Too  generally  neglect- 
ed, 82.  Prevents  misconceptions,  82. 
Founded  on  great  and  definite  prin- 
ciples, 83.  General  principles  of,  8'!— 
86. 

Purity,  in  what  it  consists,  271. 

Pyrrhic,  the,  403. 


Quantity,  of  syllables,  on  what  it  de- 
pends, 402;  how  indicated,  403;  in 
Latin  and  Greek,  independent  cf 
accent,  403. 

Quantity-Marks,  150. 

Quatrain,  the,  407. 

Quintilian,  his  view  of  the  perfect 
orator,  164. 

Quotation-points,  of  what  they  consist, 
145.  By  whom  first  used,  145.  For 
what  employed,  145.  Not  to  be  used 
when  merely  the  substance  of  a  quo- 
tation is  given,  145.  IIow  to  punctu. 
ate  matter  within,  146.  Single,  when 
used,  146. 

Quotations,  when  to  be  preceded  by  tht 
colon,  97.  When  to  be  preceded  by 
the  comma,  124. 


Reason,  the  distinction  between  man 

and  brutes,  13. 
Reasoning,  the,  in  an   argumentative 

discourse,  889. 
Rtfa^ence-Marks,  150. 
Regimen,  of  verbs  and  propositions,  68. 
Rej)etition  (the  figure),  252. 


INDEX. 


451 


Eestrictive  Expressions,  defined,  105. 
Not  to  be  separated  by  the  comma 
from  that  which  they  restrict,  105, 
110.  To  be  set  off  by  the  comma, 
when  they  refer  to  several  antece- 
dents themselves  separated  by  that 
point,  110.  Should  stand  immediate- 
ly after  their  logical  antecedents,  110. 

lieview,  the,  380. 

Hevision,  the  best  means  of  correcting 
too  great  floridity,  2&i.  Necessary  to 
the  effect  of  good  writing,  315. 

Mhetoric,  ancient  meaning  of  the  word, 

163.  Its  present  acceptation,  163.  Its 
province  as  a  science  and  as  an  art, 

164.  To  be  regarded  as  a  useful  and 
an  elegant  art,  165.  Advantages  re- 
sulting from  the  study  of,  166—168. 
Objection  to  its  rules,  168.  Source 
from  which  its  rules  are  drawn,  169. 
Figures  of,  246. 

Rhyme,  an  unfavorable  medium  for  the 
expression  of  sublime  ideas,  211.  De- 
fined, 402.  Principles  to  be  observed 
respecting  it,  413,  414.  Eich  rhymes, 
413.  Speaks  to  the  ear,  414.  Perfect 
rhymes,  414.  Admissible  rhymes,  414. 
Inadmissible  rhymes,  414.  Regular- 
ity of,  important,  415. 

Ridicule,  in  what  it  consists,  233.  To 
what  it  may  be  effectively  applied, 
233.    Its  attack  covert,  234. 

Romance,  the,  375.  Difference  between 
it  and  the  novel,  375. 

Romans,  the,  their  policy  in  introdu- 
cing their  language  into  conquered 
states,  40. 


S. 


Sanscrit,  supposed  to  be  one  of  the 
most  ancient  of  languages,  20. 

Siitire,  the,  423. 

Satiiieal  Poetry,  423. 

Saw,  the,  345. 

Saxon  Language,  an  offshoot  of  Gothic, 
46. 

Saxons,  what  part  of  Germany  they  in- 
habited, 44. 

Scandinavia,  emigration  of  barbarians 
from,  41. 

Scandinavian  Language,  an  offshoot  of 
Gothic,  46. 


Scanning,  in  what  it  consists,  405. 

Science,  its  relation  to  art,  165. 

Section  (.character),  where  used,  150. 

Semicolon,  meaning  of  the  word,  100. 
Degree  of  separation  which  it  de- 
notes, 100.  First  employed  in  Italy, 
100.  When  first  used  in  England,  100. 
Eules  for  the,  100—102. 

Semi-Saxon  Writings,  50. 

Sense,  adaptation  of  sound  to,  304. 

Senses,  the,  rendered  acute  by  constant 
use,  172.  Three  of  them  incapable  of 
awakening  pleasure  in  the  imagina- 
tion, 188. 

Sentences,  definition  of,  67.  Component 
parts  of,  07.  Subjects  of,  67;  how 
ascertained,  68.  Predicates  of,  68. 
Members  of,  69.  Declarative,  70.  In- 
terrogative, 71.  Imperative,  71.  Ex- 
clamatory, 71.  Simple,  71.  Com- 
pound, 71. 

Sermons,  393- S09. 

SliaJcspeare,  his  dramatic  poems  highly 
irregular,  322;  their  popularity  ac- 
counted for,  323. 

Side-heads,  what  they  are,  155. 

Silence,  a  source  of  sublimity,  197. 

Simile,  the,  what  it  is,  247.  Sometimes 
used  without  any  formal  term  of  com- 
parison, 247.  The  explanatory,  247. 
The  embellishing,  248.  Rules  for  its 
use,  256.  Should  not  be  founded  on 
faint  resemblances,  256.  Should  not 
be  trite,  250.  Should  not  be  founded 
on  local  allusions,  257.  Should  not  be 
drawn  from  resemblances  to  trivial 
objects,  257.  Is  out  of  place,  when 
anger,  terror,  or  despair,  is  the  prev- 
alent passion,  258. 

Simplicity,  essential  to  sublimity,  208. 

Sketches,  historical,  368.  Biographical, 
369. 

Smallness,  an  element  of  beauty,  219. 
The  idea  of,  associated  with  whatever 
we  are  fond  of,  219. 

Smell,  a  source  of  pleasure  to  the  im- 
agination only  by  means  of  associa- 
tions, 189. 

Smoothness,  an  element  of  beauty,  218. 

Solecisms,  273. 

Solitude,  a  source  of  sublimity,  197. 

Solon,  the  laws  of,  how  written,  28. 

Sonnet,  the,  borrowed  from  the  Itr.lians, 


452 


INDEX. 


409.  Of  what  it  consists,  409.  Ar- 
rangement of  its  rhymes,  409. 

Sophism,  difference  between  it  and 
sophistry,  277. 

Sound,  beauty  of,  222.  Adaptation  of, 
to  sense,  304. 

Sounds,  inarticulate,  16.  Employed  in 
composition  to  imitate  motion,  306 ; 
to   represent  the    emotions   of  the 

I   mind,  307. 

Spanish  Language,  the,  origin  of,  42. 
Character  of,  59. 

Speculation,  what  it  is,  354. 

Speech,  parts  of,  their  origin,  29—33; 
their  number,  62 ;  to  be  carefully  dis- 
tinguished, 65. 

Spondee,  the,  403. 

Stanzas,  what  they  are,  402.  Their  va- 
riety, infinite,  407.  Four-lined,  407. 
Six-lined,  408.  The  Spenserian  stanza, 
borrowed  from  Italian,  408 ;  by  whom 
used,  408 ;  of  what  it  consists,  408. 

Statement,  the,  of  an  argumentative  dis- 

■    course,  388. 

Story,  the,  376.  Difference  between  it 
and  the  tale,  376. 

Strength,  in  what  it  consists,  293.  Re- 
quires the  rejection  of  superfluous 
words,  293.  Requires  that  proper 
connectives  be  used,  293.  Requires 
that  the  too  frequent  use  of  and  be 
avoided,  294.  Requires  the  writer  to 
avoid  splitting  particles,  295.  Re- 
quires that  the  important  words  be 
so  disposed  as  to  make  the  greatest 
impression,  295.  Requires  that  a 
shorter  member  should  precede  a 
longer,  and  a  weaker  a  stronger,  296. 
Requires  that  a  sentence  should  not 
be  closed  with  an  unaccented  word, 
297. 

Style,  dignified  by  figures,  243.  What  it 
is,  262.  Derivation  of  the  word,  262. 
Varieties  of,  263;  appropriate  to  dif- 
ferent subjects,  26.3.  The  dry,  263. 
The  plain,  263.  The  neat,  268;  adapt- 
ed to  all  subjects,  2(>4.  The  elegant, 
2(V4.  The  florid,  264;  two  varieties 
of,  264 ;  best  means  of  correcting  too 
great  floridity,  264,  The  simple,  266. 
The  labored,  2(55.  The  concise,  265. 
The  difluse,  266.  The  nervous,  2(K5. 
The  feeble,  260.   Essential  pvopcrtica 


of,  270.  Forming  of,  313;  rules  for 
the,  314—316.  Must  be  adapted  to  the 
subject,  316. 

Suth/ieads,  what  they  are,  155. 

Subjects,  definition  of,  67.  How  to  be 
ascertained,  68.  Grammatical,  68. 
Logical,  68.  Logical,  when  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  comma,  115.  List  of, 
427-435. 

Sublimity,  defined,  194.  Its  principal 
source,  195.  An  element  in  scriptural 
descriptions  of  powerful  animals,  195. 
Vastncss,  one  of  its  sources,  196. 
Darkness,  solitude,  and  silence,  con- 
ducive to  it,  197.  Obscurity,  one  of 
its  sources,  197.  Heightened  by  dis- 
order, 198.  Sounds  characterized  by, 
199.  Produced,  in  sounds,  exclusive- 
ly by  associations,  200.  The  sublime 
in  writing,  201;  excludes  what  is 
merely  beautiful,  201.  Moral  or  sen- 
timental sublime,  204;  its  sources, 
204.  Style  essential  to  it,  206;  con- 
ciseness, one  of  its  essentials,  207; 
simplicity,  one  of  its  essentials,  208. 
The  emotion  it  excites,  short-lived, 
209.  An  unimproved  state  of  society, 
favorable  to  it,  210.  Rhyme,  unfa- 
vorable to  sublimity  in  writing,  212. 
Faults  opposed  to  it,  213.  Very  swift 
motion,  an  element  of,  218. 

Substantives,  what  they  are,  62. 

Syllabication,  two  systems  of,  144.  Rules 
of,  145. 

Syllepsis,  what  it  is,  237. 

Syntax,  principles  for  correcting  false, 
150-159.    Figures  of,  237. 

STjncuresis,  236. 

Syncoi)e,  236. 

Synecdoche,  249. 

Synonymes,  what  they  arc,  380.  Want 
of  discrimination  between  them  vio- 
lates precision,  279. 

T. 

Tale,  the,  375. 

Taste,  defined,  170.  Various  theories 
respecting  it,  170,  171.  Common  to 
all  men,  171.  Possessed  in  different 
degrees,  171.  An  improvable  faculty, 
172.  Its  connection  with  the  judg- 
ment, 173.     Its  elements,  174.     Its 


INDEX. 


453 


characteristics,  174.  Delicacy  of,  174. 
Correctness  of,  175.  Mutations  of, 
176.  Often  vitiated,  176, 177.  Diver- 
sity of,  when  admissible,  178.  Stan- 
dard of,  179.  Distinction  between  it 
and  genius,  181,  182.  Pleasures  of, 
183;  derived  from  imagination,  185; 
Increased  by  associations,  186. 

Tautology,  what  it  is,  300.  How  to  cor- 
rect it,  300. 

Technical  Tei^ms,  to  be  avoided  in  com- 
position, 288. 

Testimony,  argument  from,  333. 

Tetrameter,  of  what  it  consists,  404. 
Iambic,  a  favorite  measure,  411 ;  its 
facility  of  construction,  410. 

Teutonic  Language,  a  bmnch  of  Gothic, 
46. 

Texts,  choice  of,  394. 

Thaut,  supposed  to  be  identical  with 
Hermes  Trismegistus,  25. 

Thesis,  the,  385. 

Thought,  essential  to  eflfectlve  writing, 
326. 

Title-page,  the,  155. 

Titles  Running,  what  they  are,  155. 

Tmesis,  237. 

Touch,  incapable  of  awakening  pleasure 
in  the  imagination  without  the  aid  of 
sight,  189. 

Tract,  the,  380. 

Tragedy,  defined,  420. 

Travels,  370. 

Travesties,  what  they  are,  226,  421. 

Treatise,  the,  380. 

Tribro^h,  the,  403. 

Trimeter,  of  what  it  consists,  404. 

Triplet,  the,  what  it  is,  402. 

Trochee,  the,  403. 

Tropes,  247. 

Type,  kinds  of,  154. 


Unity,  in  what  it  consists,  309.  Re- 
quires that  the  scene  and  subject  be 
changed  as  little  as  possible,  309.  Re- 
quires us  to  avoid  crowding  into  one 
sentence  things  that  have  no  connec- 
tion, 310.  Punctuation,  no  remedy 
for  yjolations  of,  311.  Requires  the 
writer  to  avoid  long  parentheses,  312. 
The  three  dramatic  unities,  420. 


Unity  and  Variety,  held  by  some  to  con- 
stitute beauty,  215. 

Usage,  the  only  staudard  of  speaking 
and  writing,  274.  Present,  274.  Na- 
tional, 274.  Reputable,  274.  Rules 
with  respect  to  words  when  usage  is 
divided,  275. 

Utility,  held  by  some  to  constitute 
beauty,  215. 


Variety,  one  of  the  elements  of  beauty 
of  figure,  217. 

Vastness,  a  source  of  sublimity,  196. 

Verbs,  origin  of,  31.  Defined,  63.  Sub- 
jects of,  63.  Transitive,  63.  Intran- 
sitive,  63.  Fmite,  63.  Voices  of,  63. 
Transitive  and  intransitive,  to  bo 
carefully  distinguished,  158. 

Verse,  of  what  it  consists,  401.  Iambic, 
404.  Trochaic,  404.  Anapestic,  404. 
Dactylic,    404.     Blank,    see    Blank 


Verses,  what  they  are,  402.  When  called 
pure,  404.    When  said  to  be  mixed, 

404.  Catalectic,  404.  Hypercatalectic, 

405.  Acatalectic,  405. 
Versification,  what  it  is,  402. 
Vignette,  the,  155. 

Vision,  250. 

Volumes,  dififerent  sizes  of,  folio,  quarto, 

&c.,  153. 
Voyages,  370. 
Vulgarisms,  to  be  avoided,  276. 


Welsh,  its  resemblance  to  Hebrew,  37. 

Wit,  what  it  is,  225.  How  produced, 
226.  Varieties  of,  226— 231.  Capable 
of  making  beauties,  as  well  as  blem- 
ishes, subjects  of  derision,  321. 

Wonderful,  the,  a  source  of  pleasure  to 
the  imagination,  193.  An  element  in 
Chinese  gardening,  193., 

Writing,  ideographic  system  of,  21 ; 
used  by  the  Mexicans  and  North 
American  Indians,  21.  Verbal  sys- 
tem of,  21 ;  objection  to  it,  22.  Chi- 
nese system  of,  22 ;  read  and  under- 
stood by  other  Asiatic  nations,  22. 


464 


INDEX. 


Syllabic  system  of,  23;  written  lan- 
guages of  which  it  is  the  basis,  23. 
Alphabetic  system  of,  23;  its  origin, 
21 ;  its  invention  attributed  to  the 
Deity,  to  Moses,  Abraham,  Enoch, 
and  Adam,  34;  its  invention  attrib- 


uted by  the  Grcelis  and  Romans  to 
the  Phoenicians,  25;  difl'erent  theories 
as  to  its  invention,  26 ;  known  to  the 
Jews  in  the  time  of  Moses,  27.  Pres  • 
ent  manner  of,  introduced  by  Pronap- 
ides,  28. 


TnK  END. 


Appletons'  Standard  Scientific  Text-Booiis, 


Youmans's  Pirst  Book  of  Botany.  Designed  to  cultivate  the  Observing 
Powers  of  Children.  By  Eliza  A.  Youmans.  i2mo.  183  pages.  $1.00. 
This  litde  book  has  proved  a  wonderful  success,  and  is  emphatically  a  step  in  the 
right  direction.  Although  it  has  been  issued  but  a  short  time,  it  has  been  adopted  for 
use  in  the  cities  of  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  New  York,  Columbus,  Nashville,  Milwaukee, 
etc.,  etc.,  and  in  the  States  of  Maryland,  Illinois,  and  Arkansas.  It  is  to  be  speedily 
followed  by  the  Second  Book  of  Botany  and  six  large  and  beautifully-colored  Botanical 
Charts,  after  the  plan  of  Henslow. 

Hon.  Superintendent  Bateman,  of  Illinois,  says  :  "As  a  sample  of  the  iriie  method 
of  teaching  the  elements  of  science  in  primary  schools.  Miss  Youmans's  book  is  deserv- 
ing of  the  highest  praise.  In  this  respect  I  have  seen  nothing  equal  to  it.  The  same 
method,  pursued  in  all  the  natural  sciences,  would  soon  give  us  a  generation  of  accu- 
rate and  intelligent  young  observers  of  natural  objects  and  phenomena,  and  change  for 
the  better  the  whole  tone  and  character  of  common-school  instruction. 

"  Newton  Bateman,  Suft  Piiblic  Instruction." 
Xiockyer's  Astronomy,  ascompanied  with  numerous  Illustrations,  a  Colored 
representation  of  the  Solar,  Stellar,  and  Nebular  Spectra,  and  Celestial  Charts  of 
the  Northern  and  the  Southern  Hemispheres.    American  Edition,  rcw\s&di  and 
specially  adapted  to  the  Schools  of  the  United  States.     i2mo.    312  pages. 
Quackenbos's  Natural  Philosophy.     Revised  Edition.     Embracing   the 
most  recent  Discoveries  in  the  various  Branches  of  Physics,  and  exhibiting  the 
Application  of  Scientific  Principles  in  Every-day  Life.    Adapted  to  use  with  or 
without  Apparatus,  and  accompanied  with  Practical  Exercises  and  numerous  Illus- 
trations.    i2mo.    450  pages. 
Quackenbos's  Philosophy  has  long  been  a  favorite  Text-Book.    To  those  who  have 
used  it,  no  words  of  commendation  are  necessary ;  to  those  who  have  not,  we  would 
earnestly  suggest  a  careful  examination  of  its  claims.     We  would  here  merely  say  that 
it  has  recently  been  thoroughly  revised,  in  view  of  recent  discoveries  in  Physics, 
and  the  general  acceptance  of  new  theories  respecting  Heat,  Light,  and  Electricity, 
the  Correlation  and  Conservation  of  Forces,  etc.     The  present  Edition  is  in  all  respects 
an  accurate  exponent  of  the  present  state  of  science. 

Huxley  and  Youmans's  Physiology.  The  Elements  of  Physiology  and 
Hygiene.  A  Text-Book  for  Educational  Institutions.  By  Thomas  H.  Huxley, 
F.  R.  S.,  and  William  Jay  Youmans,  M.  D.     i2mo.    420  pages. 

Nicholson's  Text-Book  of  Geology.  Well  condensed,  accurate,  and  clear. 
i2mo.     266  pages. 

Nicholson's  Text-Book  of  Zoology.  A  comprehensive  Manual  for  the  use 
of  Academies  and  Colleges.    By  Prof.  Nicholson,  of  Toronto,    i2mo.    353  pages. 

Wrag-e's  German  Grammar:  based  on  the  Natural  Method— Language  be* 
fore  Grammar.  Teaches  German  rapidly,  pleasantly,  and  thoroughly.  i2mo. 
350  pages, 

KrusPs  New  Series  of  Drawingr-Books :  Teacher's  Manual,  and  Synthetic 
Series  of  Inventive  Drawing  (4  Nos.),  now  ready.  Something  new  and  excellent 
— one  of  the  most  valuable  and  efficient  of  educational  agencies. 

Send,  for  Catalogues  and  further  information,  to 

D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  549  &  551  Bfoadway,  N.  Y. 


D.  ArPLETON  &  CO:S  PUBLICATIONS. 

Quackeiibos's  Standard  Text-Books: 

A5r  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR:  12mo,  288  pages. 

raiST  IJOOK  IN  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR:  16mo,  120  pages. 

ADVANCED  COURSE  OF  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC: 
12ino,  450  pages. 

FIRST  LESSONS  IN  COMPOSITION:  12mo,  182  pages. 

ILLUSTRATED  SCHOOL  HISTORY,  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES: 
12mo,  538  pages. 

ELEMENTARY  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES:  Beauti- 
fully illustratad  with  Engravings  and  Maps.     12ino,  230  pages. 

A  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY :  Just  Revised.     12mo,  450  pages. 

APPLETONS'  ARITHMETICAL  SERIES:  Consisting  of  a  Primary, 
Elementary,  Practical,  Higher,  and  Mental  Arithmetic. 


Benj.  Wilcox,  A.  M.,  Pilnc.  Eivcr  Falls  Acad.,  Wis.:  "I  have  taught  in  fieini. 
naries  in  this  State  and  in  New  Yoric  fur  more  than  twenty  years,  and  am  fomiliar  with 
most  of  the  woiks  that  have  been  issued  by  different  aiUhoi-s  within  that  period ;  and  I 
consider  Quackenbos's  Text-Books  the  motst  nnewoeptional  in  their  respective  depart- 
ments.''"— C.  B.  Tillinghast,  Princ.  of  Academy,  Moosop,  Conn.:  '"1  think  Quack- 
enbos's books  the  nearest  perfection  of  any  I  have  examined  on  the  various  subjecta 
of  which  they  treat." 

Pres.  Savag-a,  Female  College,  Millersbiirpr,  Ky. :  "  Mr.  Q.  certainly  possesses  raro 
qualifications  as  an  author  of  school-books.  His  United  States  History  A(/«  ?J0  c^m^/Zs, 
and  his  Phetoric  is  really  ind if<pensahle.'" — David  Y.  Shaub,  Pi*es.  Teachers'  Inst., 
Fogclsviile,  Pa.:  "I  approve  of  all  the  Text-Books  written  by  Mr.  Qnackonbos."— Kev. 
Dr.  Winslow,  N.  Y.,  Author  of  "Intellectual  P]ii!osoi)hy ; "  "All  the  works  of  this 
excellent  author  are  characterized  by  clearness,  accuracy,  thorouphness,  and  completo- 
nes."};  also  by  a  gi-adual  and  continuous  development  of  ulterior  results  from  thch-  pre- 
viously taught  elements." 

Rev.  Dr.  Kivers,  Pros.  Wesleyan  University:  'I  cortlially  approve  of  all  the  Text- 
Books  edited  by  G.  P.  Quackenbos."— W.  B.  McCrate,  P»-inc.  Acad.,  E.  Sullivan, 
Me. :  "  QuackenboR's  books  need  only  to  be  known  to  be  used  in  all  tlie  schools  in  tb« 
State.  Wherever  they  are  introduced,  they  are  vnirerttolli/  lil'ed ^—Jaa.  B.  Hue, 
County  Supt.  of  Schools,  Council  Bluffs,  Iowa :  "  Any  thinp  that  has  Qu.ickeiil>o«"* 
name  is  sufficient  guai-antee  with  me."— Methodist  Quarterly  Review,  Jan. 
1*"»0:  "  Every  thinp  we  have  noticed  IVom  Mr.  Quackenlws  shows  that  the  making  of 
bookh  of  this  class  is  his  pi-oper  vocation." 


ShigJe  copies  of  the  above  Standard  works  wUl  he  mailed^  post-paid,  for 
•xamhiation,  on  receipt  of  one-half  the  retail  prices.  Liberal  terms  madt 
for  introduciion.     Address 

D.  APPLBTON  &  CO.,  PubUshers, 

649  tC-  561  Broadtcay,  Ketc  York, 


RETURN  TO  the  circulation  desk  of  any 

University  of  California  Library 

or  to  the 

NORTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 
BIdg.  400,  Richmond  Field  Station 
University  of  California 
Richmond,  CA  94804-4698 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 
2-month  loans  may  be  renewed  by  calling 

(510)642-6753 
1-year  loans  may  be  recharged  by  bringing  books 

to  NRLF 
Renewals    and    recharges    may    be    made   4    days 

prior  to  due  date 

DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 


SEP  0  8  1995 


SENT  ON  ILL 


APR  3  0  1999 


U.  C.  BERKELEY 


20,000  (4/94) 


J 


YB  36%6 


STANDARD  EDUCATIONAL  WORKS. 

Sciance  Primers :  I-  CHEMISTEY.  By  H.  E.  Eoscoe,  Professor  of 
Cheinistiy  in  Owens  College,  Manchester;  author  of  "The  Spectrum 
Analysis,"  "  Lessons  in  Elementary  Chemistry,"  etc.  11.  PHYSICS. 
By  Balfour  Stewakt,  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  in  Owens 
College,  Manchester ;  author  of  "  Elementary  Lessons  in  Physics." 
With  Illustrations.    Tinted  paper.    Flexible  cloth  covers.    ISmo. 

Spalding's  History  of  English  literature. 
Sewell's  First  History  of  Greece.   iSmo.   85S  pages. 

Child's  First  History  of  Eome.   i3mo 

nalysis  of  Derivatioas  aad  Definitions  of 


984221 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  UBRARY 


Toumans's  Sotany.    Designed  to  cultivate  the  Observing  Power  of 
Children.    With  numerous  Illustrations.    12mo.    167  pages. 


D.    APPI.ETON    &    CO.,   N.  Y. , 

WILL  SEND  A  DESCRIPTIVE  CATALOGUE 

of  English,  Latin,  Greek,  French,  Spanish,  Italian,  Hebrew,  and  SjTiac 
Text-Books,  to  those  applying  for  it. 


'y  V  A_v_^i_ 


